Advances in Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies

Advances in Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies

Key Differences Between Residential and Commercial Junk Removal Services

The continuous evolution of industrialization and urbanization has brought about a significant increase in the generation of hazardous waste, posing substantial threats to environmental safety. In this context, the importance of advanced treatment technologies for ensuring environmental protection cannot be overstated. These technologies represent a critical component in managing and mitigating the risks associated with hazardous waste, ultimately safeguarding ecosystems and human health.


One of the primary reasons advanced treatment technologies are essential is their ability to effectively neutralize or eliminate harmful substances present in hazardous waste. Traditional methods often fall short when dealing with complex chemical compounds that can persist in the environment for extended periods. Advanced technologies such as bioremediation, thermal desorption, and plasma arc treatment offer innovative solutions by breaking down toxic substances into less harmful or inert forms through sophisticated scientific processes. They are a family-owned company with a focus on customer satisfaction removal companies refrigerators. This not only reduces the immediate threat posed by these wastes but also minimizes long-term environmental impacts.


Moreover, these cutting-edge technologies contribute significantly to resource recovery and sustainability. By transforming waste into reusable materials or energy, they support circular economy principles. For instance, advancements in pyrolysis and gasification allow for the conversion of organic waste into biofuels or syngas, providing alternative energy sources while simultaneously reducing reliance on fossil fuels. This dual benefit underscores the role of advanced treatment technologies in promoting sustainable practices and reducing our ecological footprint.


Furthermore, advanced treatment technologies enhance efficiency and effectiveness in hazardous waste management operations. They enable precise targeting of specific contaminants, leading to more efficient clean-up processes compared to conventional methods. The integration of sensors, automation, and data analytics further optimizes these technologies by allowing real-time monitoring and adaptive control systems that enhance operational performance while ensuring compliance with environmental regulations.


Public health is another critical area positively impacted by these technological advancements. Hazardous wastes often contain carcinogenic or mutagenic substances that pose severe health risks upon exposure. By efficiently treating these wastes before disposal or discharge into the environment, advanced technologies play a crucial role in preventing contamination of water sources, soil degradation, and air pollution-thereby protecting human populations from adverse health outcomes.


In conclusion, as we face mounting environmental challenges linked to hazardous waste generation, the importance of advanced treatment technologies becomes increasingly evident. These innovations not only provide effective solutions for detoxifying harmful substances but also support broader sustainability goals through resource recovery initiatives. By enhancing operational efficiency and safeguarding public health, they represent indispensable tools in our collective effort to ensure a safer and healthier environment for current and future generations. As such, continued investment in research and development within this field remains imperative to address emerging challenges and drive progress towards more resilient environmental management strategies.

In recent years, the field of hazardous waste management has witnessed significant innovations aimed at addressing the growing concerns associated with environmental pollution and public health risks. As industries expand and technological advancements accelerate, the volume and complexity of hazardous waste continue to rise, necessitating more sophisticated and effective treatment technologies. This essay explores some of the recent innovations that have emerged in this critical area.


One of the most promising developments in hazardous waste management is the advent of advanced thermal treatment technologies. These methods, such as plasma arc gasification and pyrolysis, offer superior capabilities for converting hazardous waste into less harmful byproducts or even useful energy forms. Unlike traditional incineration, which can release toxic emissions, these techniques operate at higher temperatures that break down complex chemicals into simpler molecules with minimal environmental impact. By transforming waste into syngas or char, these processes not only mitigate pollution but also contribute to renewable energy generation.


Bioremediation has also seen remarkable advancements as researchers harness the power of microorganisms to degrade hazardous substances naturally. New strains of bacteria and fungi are being discovered and engineered to target specific contaminants in soil and water environments effectively. These biological agents offer a sustainable alternative to chemical treatments by breaking down pollutants into harmless end products through natural metabolic processes. Recent innovations include genetically modified microorganisms designed to thrive in extreme conditions or those capable of degrading multiple types of contaminants simultaneously.


Another innovative approach gaining traction is the use of nanotechnology in hazardous waste treatment. Nanomaterials possess unique properties due to their small size and high surface area-to-volume ratio, making them highly effective at adsorbing heavy metals and organic pollutants from contaminated environments. Advances in this area have led to the development of magnetic nanoparticles that can be easily separated from treated materials after they capture toxins, offering an efficient way to clean up polluted sites without introducing additional chemicals into ecosystems.


Electrochemical oxidation is another cutting-edge technique that has shown promise in treating liquid hazardous wastes. This method involves applying an electrical current to drive chemical reactions that break down contaminants into less harmful compounds. Recent improvements in electrode materials have enhanced the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of this process, making it a viable option for industries seeking environmentally friendly ways to manage their effluents.


Finally, many companies are exploring integrated management systems that combine multiple treatment technologies tailored to specific types of waste. These hybrid solutions optimize resource use by leveraging the strengths of different methods while minimizing their weaknesses. For example, combining bioremediation with physical or chemical treatments can accelerate cleanup processes while reducing overall costs and environmental footprint.


In conclusion, recent innovations in hazardous waste management techniques reflect a shift towards more sustainable and efficient practices driven by technological advances across various fields. From thermal treatment technologies to bioremediation breakthroughs and nanotechnology applications, these new approaches hold great promise for mitigating pollution risks associated with industrial activities worldwide. By continuing to invest in research and development efforts focused on improving existing methods or discovering novel solutions altogether-society can progress towards safer handling practices for managing its ever-growing stockpile of hazardous materials responsibly-a crucial step toward ensuring our planet's long-term health prosperity alike!

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Why Small Businesses Are Embracing Professional Junk Removal Solutions

Why Small Businesses Are Embracing Professional Junk Removal Solutions

In recent years, there has been a noticeable trend of small businesses embracing professional junk removal solutions.. At first glance, this may seem like just another operational expense, but upon closer examination, it's clear that tailored services meeting specific business needs are playing a pivotal role in this decision.

Posted by on 2024-12-01

Streamlining Home Renovations with Quick Junk Removal Services

Streamlining Home Renovations with Quick Junk Removal Services

Streamlining home renovations can be an exhilarating yet daunting task, often accompanied by the challenge of efficiently managing junk and debris.. Amidst this whirlwind of creativity and labor, one of the most overlooked aspects is the importance of effective junk management.

Posted by on 2024-12-01

Factors to Consider When Choosing a Commercial Junk Removal Service for Your Home

The rapid advancement of technology has profoundly transformed numerous industries, and the realm of commercial junk removal is no exception. The integration of technology in these operations has not only enhanced efficiency but also brought about remarkable improvements in hazardous waste treatment technologies. These advancements are crucial as they address both environmental concerns and human safety, ushering in a new era of responsible waste management.


In the past, junk removal operations heavily relied on manual labor and rudimentary techniques that often posed significant risks to workers and the environment. However, with technological integration, there has been a paradigm shift towards more sophisticated and safer methods. One significant development is the use of robotics and automation. Robots equipped with advanced sensors can now identify, sort, and handle hazardous materials with precision, reducing the need for human intervention in potentially dangerous situations. This not only minimizes health risks but also ensures that hazardous waste is handled according to stringent safety standards.


Another pivotal advancement is the implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) in waste sorting processes. AI-driven systems can efficiently categorize different types of waste materials based on their chemical composition or recyclability. This capability is particularly useful when dealing with complex mixtures of hazardous substances where precise identification is essential to prevent contamination or improper disposal. By streamlining this process, AI helps reduce errors associated with human judgment, ensuring that each material is treated appropriately.


Moreover, digital platforms have revolutionized communication and coordination within junk removal operations. Modern software solutions enable real-time tracking and management of waste collection routes, optimizing logistics to reduce fuel consumption and carbon emissions. These platforms often include features like automated scheduling and customer notifications, enhancing service efficiency while minimizing the environmental footprint.


Additionally, data analytics plays a crucial role in improving hazardous waste treatment technologies. By collecting and analyzing data from various sources-such as sensors on equipment or feedback from customers-companies can gain valuable insights into operational efficiency and potential areas for improvement. This data-driven approach enables continuous refinement of processes to ensure compliance with evolving regulations and adopt best practices for environmental sustainability.


Furthermore, advancements in treatment technologies have led to more effective methods for neutralizing hazardous substances before disposal or recycling. Techniques such as bioremediation-using microorganisms to break down pollutants-and thermal desorption-removing contaminants through heat application-have become more refined thanks to technological innovations. These methods not only mitigate environmental hazards but also facilitate resource recovery from what would otherwise be considered waste.


In conclusion, the integration of technology into commercial junk removal operations represents a significant leap forward in addressing challenges associated with hazardous waste management. Through robotics, AI systems, digital platforms, data analytics, and advanced treatment technologies, companies are better equipped than ever to manage these challenges responsibly. As we continue to innovate and refine these technologies further, we move closer towards achieving sustainable practices that protect both people and our planet from the dangers posed by hazardous materials.

Factors to Consider When Choosing a Commercial Junk Removal Service for Your Home

Cost Considerations: Comparing Pricing Models in Commercial Junk Removal Services

In today's rapidly evolving world, the management and treatment of hazardous waste have emerged as critical issues that demand innovative solutions. As industries expand and urban areas grow, the need for advanced treatment technologies has become paramount in ensuring sustainable development. These technologies not only provide significant benefits to businesses but also offer substantial advantages to communities at large.


For businesses, investing in advanced hazardous waste treatment solutions can lead to numerous operational and financial benefits. Firstly, such technologies often result in more efficient processes that can reduce overall waste generation. By minimizing waste production, companies can lower disposal costs and reduce their environmental footprint-a factor increasingly important in meeting regulatory requirements and achieving corporate sustainability goals. Moreover, adopting these advanced solutions often leads to improved resource recovery from waste materials, enabling businesses to reclaim valuable resources for reuse or resale. This not only contributes to cost savings but also creates new revenue streams.


Furthermore, companies that demonstrate a commitment to effective hazardous waste management enhance their reputation among consumers and stakeholders. In an age where environmental responsibility is a key factor influencing consumer behavior, businesses that actively engage in sustainable practices gain a competitive edge. By showcasing their dedication to reducing environmental impact through the adoption of cutting-edge treatment technologies, companies build trust and loyalty with environmentally-conscious customers.


The benefits extend beyond individual businesses; communities also stand to gain significantly from advances in hazardous waste treatment technologies. With more effective treatment methods, the risks posed by hazardous substances are mitigated, leading to safer living environments. Reduced pollution levels contribute directly to public health improvements by decreasing exposure-related illnesses associated with contaminated air, water, or soil.


Additionally, implementing state-of-the-art treatment facilities can spur local economic growth by creating jobs in technology development, facility operation, and maintenance sectors.

Advances in Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies - customer

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Communities benefit from increased employment opportunities while simultaneously fostering an environment of innovation and technological advancement.


Moreover, modern hazardous waste management techniques ensure compliance with stringent environmental regulations at both national and international levels. This compliance helps prevent costly penalties associated with non-compliance while promoting long-term ecological balance within community ecosystems.


In conclusion, the adoption of advanced hazardous waste treatment technologies presents substantial advantages for both businesses and communities alike. Companies benefit through cost savings, enhanced reputation, resource recovery opportunities-all contributing positively towards their bottom line-while communities enjoy improved safety standards alongside economic growth prospects driven by technological investments made within their locale. Ultimately these advancements pave way toward achieving broader sustainability objectives critical for future generations' well-being on our planet Earth today!

Environmental Responsibility: How Commercial Junk Removal Services Handle Waste Disposal

Implementing new technologies in the field of hazardous waste treatment is a critical endeavor, offering promising advancements yet beset with challenges and considerations. As environmental concerns escalate alongside industrial growth, the need for innovative solutions becomes increasingly pressing. However, integrating cutting-edge technologies into existing systems is not without its hurdles.


One of the primary challenges is the financial burden associated with adopting new technologies. Research and development costs can be exorbitant, particularly for small to medium enterprises that may lack the resources of larger corporations. Investment in new technologies entails not only purchasing state-of-the-art equipment but also training personnel to operate it effectively. Additionally, there are often ongoing maintenance costs that must be factored into budgetary considerations.


Regulatory compliance poses another significant challenge. Hazardous waste treatment is heavily regulated due to its potential impact on human health and the environment. New technologies must undergo rigorous testing and obtain certifications to ensure they meet stringent safety standards.

Advances in Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies - LCD television

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This regulatory landscape can be daunting for companies aiming to implement novel solutions swiftly.


Furthermore, technological compatibility presents a practical consideration. Existing infrastructure may not readily accommodate new technologies, necessitating costly upgrades or complete overhauls of current systems. Ensuring seamless integration without disrupting ongoing operations requires meticulous planning and a comprehensive understanding of both old and new processes.


Another consideration is stakeholder engagement, which plays a crucial role in successful implementation. Stakeholders include employees who must adapt to new operational procedures, as well as local communities who might have concerns about changes in waste management practices nearby. Transparent communication and involvement throughout the technology adoption process can help build trust and facilitate smoother transitions.


Environmental impact assessments are also vital when considering new hazardous waste treatment technologies. While these innovations aim to mitigate harm, there is always a risk of unintended consequences such as secondary pollution or resource depletion during manufacturing processes.


Lastly, there is an inherent uncertainty associated with deploying untested or emerging technologies on a large scale. While laboratory results may demonstrate efficacy, real-world applications can reveal unforeseen challenges that require prompt adaptation and problem-solving skills.


Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of implementing advanced hazardous waste treatment technologies cannot be overstated. Enhanced efficiency, reduced environmental footprint, and improved safety measures represent just a few advantages driving innovation forward in this sector.


In conclusion, while advances in hazardous waste treatment present exciting opportunities for addressing pressing environmental issues more effectively than ever before; careful consideration of financial constraints regulatory requirements infrastructural compatibilities stakeholder engagement environmental impacts along with readiness for unanticipated complications is essential ensuring successful integration sustainable positive change ultimately achieved beneficial societal ecological outcomes alike

Assessing Customer Service and Reliability in Commercial Junk Removal Providers

In recent years, the field of hazardous waste treatment for commercial services has undergone significant transformations, driven by technological advancements and a growing global emphasis on sustainability. As industries strive to minimize their environmental impact while complying with stringent regulations, the demand for innovative and efficient waste treatment solutions continues to rise. This essay explores some of the promising future trends and developments in hazardous waste treatment technologies that are shaping the landscape of commercial services.


One of the most noteworthy advancements is in bioremediation technology. Bioremediation leverages natural processes where microorganisms or plants are used to neutralize or remove contaminants from waste. Recent research has focused on enhancing the efficiency and scope of bioremediation through genetic engineering and synthetic biology. By creating microorganisms with enhanced capabilities, scientists aim to target a wider range of hazardous compounds more effectively.

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This form of treatment not only offers an eco-friendly alternative but also reduces reliance on chemical-based methods that may have secondary environmental impacts.


Thermal treatment technologies are also evolving rapidly, offering more efficient ways to process hazardous wastes at high temperatures. Innovations such as plasma arc gasification use extreme heat generated by electrically charged gases (plasma) to convert organic materials into syngas while vitrifying inorganic materials into an inert glassy substance. This method significantly reduces landfill needs and generates a usable energy source, making it both an effective disposal technique and a contributor to energy recovery efforts.


Chemical treatments are seeing new developments as well, particularly in advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). AOPs employ powerful oxidizing agents like ozone, hydrogen peroxide, or UV light to break down toxic substances into less harmful components. These processes can be tailored for specific types of hazardous waste, providing flexible solutions for diverse industrial applications. The ability to adapt AOPs makes them especially valuable in treating complex waste streams commonly found in commercial sectors.


Another exciting area is the integration of digital technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning in waste management systems. AI can optimize various stages of hazardous waste treatment, from real-time monitoring and predictive maintenance to operational efficiency improvements. By analyzing vast amounts of data collected from sensors embedded in treatment facilities, AI systems can anticipate equipment failures or optimize resource allocation, leading to cost savings and improved safety outcomes.


Moreover, decentralized waste treatment systems are gaining traction as they offer localized solutions that reduce transportation risks associated with moving hazardous materials over long distances. Mobile treatment units equipped with cutting-edge technology allow industries to treat waste onsite efficiently. This not only minimizes potential exposure during transportation but also provides flexibility for industries operating in remote locations or those generating smaller quantities of hazardous materials.


As these technological advances continue to evolve, they present opportunities for businesses involved in commercial waste management services to innovate their practices further. However, challenges remain-such as ensuring regulatory compliance across different jurisdictions and securing investment for developing these emerging technologies at scale.


In conclusion, the future trends in hazardous waste treatment technologies indicate a shift towards more sustainable and efficient practices within commercial services. With continued research and collaboration between industry stakeholders and scientific communities, we can expect further breakthroughs that address both environmental concerns and economic viability-paving the way towards a cleaner planet while supporting industrial growth responsibly.

A specialized trash collection truck providing regular municipal trash collection in a neighborhood in Stockholm, Sweden
Waste pickers burning e-waste in Agbogbloshie, a site near Accra in Ghana that processes large volumes of international electronic waste. The pickers burn the plastics off of materials and collect the metals for recycling, However, this process exposes pickers and their local communities to toxic fumes.
Containers for consumer waste collection at the Gdańsk University of Technology
A recycling and waste-to-energy plant for waste that is not exported

Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.[1] This includes the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process and waste-related laws, technologies, and economic mechanisms.

Waste can either be solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including industrial, biological, household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioactive wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.[2] Health issues are associated with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through the consumption of water, soil, and food.[2] Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw materials.[3] Waste management is intended to reduce the adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment, planetary resources, and aesthetics.

The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal solid waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.[4]

Waste management practices are not the same across countries (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas), and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.[5]

Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and liveable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.[6] A large portion of waste management practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.[7] According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the world.[8] Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-economic mechanisms[9] of a circular economy, effective disposal facilities, export and import control[10][11] and optimal sustainable design of products that are produced.

In the first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management, and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of "substantial research funding", which motivated scientists often require.[12][13] Electronic waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and refrigerators. According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing countries, after the United States, the People's Republic of China, Japan and Germany.[14]

Effective 'Waste Management' involves the practice of '7R' - 'R'efuse, 'R'educe', 'R'euse, 'R'epair, 'R'epurpose, 'R'ecycle and 'R'ecover. Amongst these '7R's, the first two ('Refuse' and 'Reduce') relate to the non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two ('Reuse' and 'Repair') refer to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of certain parts of the product. 'Repurpose' and 'Recycle' involve maximum usage of the materials used in the product, and 'Recover' is the least preferred and least efficient waste management practice involving the recovery of embedded energy in the waste material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat). Certain non-biodegradable products are also dumped away as 'Disposal', and this is not a "waste-'management'" practice.[15]

Principles of waste management

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Diagram of the waste hierarchy

Waste hierarchy

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The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, which classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimisation. The waste hierarchy is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: resource recovery.[16][17] The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been generated, i.e., by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step is the final resort for waste that has not been prevented, diverted, or recovered.[18][page needed] The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product.[19]

Life-cycle of a product

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The life-cycle of a product, often referred to as the product lifecycle, encompasses several key stages that begin with the design phase and proceed through manufacture, distribution, and primary use. After these initial stages, the product moves through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Each phase in this lifecycle presents unique opportunities for policy intervention, allowing stakeholders to rethink the necessity of the product, redesign it to minimize its waste potential, and extend its useful life.

During the design phase, considerations can be made to ensure that products are created with fewer resources, are more durable, and are easier to repair or recycle. This stage is critical for embedding sustainability into the product from the outset. Designers can select materials that have lower environmental impacts and create products that require less energy and resources to produce.

Manufacturing offers another crucial point for reducing waste and conserving resources. Innovations in production processes can lead to more efficient use of materials and energy, while also minimizing the generation of by-products and emissions. Adopting cleaner production techniques and improving manufacturing efficiency can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of a product.

Distribution involves the logistics of getting the product from the manufacturer to the consumer. Optimizing this stage can involve reducing packaging, choosing more sustainable transportation methods, and improving supply chain efficiencies to lower the overall environmental impact. Efficient logistics planning can also help in reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transport of goods.

The primary use phase of a product's lifecycle is where consumers interact with the product. Policies and practices that encourage responsible use, regular maintenance, and the proper functioning of products can extend their lifespan, thus reducing the need for frequent replacements and decreasing overall waste.

Once the product reaches the end of its primary use, it enters the waste hierarchy's stages. The first stage, reduction, involves efforts to decrease the volume and toxicity of waste generated. This can be achieved by encouraging consumers to buy less, use products more efficiently, and choose items with minimal packaging.

The reuse stage encourages finding alternative uses for products, whether through donation, resale, or repurposing. Reuse extends the life of products and delays their entry into the waste stream.

Recycling, the final preferred stage, involves processing materials to create new products, thus closing the loop in the material lifecycle. Effective recycling programs can significantly reduce the need for virgin materials and the environmental impacts associated with extracting and processing those materials.

Product life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a comprehensive method for evaluating the environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product's life. By systematically assessing these impacts, LCA helps identify opportunities to improve environmental performance and resource efficiency. Through optimizing product designs, manufacturing processes, and end-of-life management, LCA aims to maximize the use of the world's limited resources and minimize the unnecessary generation of waste.

In summary, the product lifecycle framework underscores the importance of a holistic approach to product design, use, and disposal. By considering each stage of the lifecycle and implementing policies and practices that promote sustainability, it is possible to significantly reduce the environmental impact of products and contribute to a more sustainable future.

Resource efficiency

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Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that global economic growth and development can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns. Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to the last use and disposal.

Polluter-pays principle

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The polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting parties pay for the impact on the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable materials.[20]

History

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Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low levels of population density and exploitation of natural resources. Common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact. Tools made out of wood or metal were generally reused or passed down through the generations.

However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others. In particular, the Maya of Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.[21][irrelevant citation]

Modern era

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Edwin Chadwick's 1842 report The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population was influential in securing the passage of the first legislation aimed at waste clearance and disposal.

Following the onset of the Industrial Revolution, industrialisation, and the sustained urban growth of large population centres in England, the buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance regulations.[22] Calls for the establishment of municipal authority with waste removal powers occurred as early as 1751, when Corbyn Morris in London proposed that "... as the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all the filth be...conveyed by the Thames to proper distance in the country".[23]

However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly devastating cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population in 1842[24] of the social reformer, Edwin Chadwick, in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population.

In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in London.[25] The Metropolitan Board of Works was the first citywide authority that centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city, and the Public Health Act 1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in "moveable receptacles" for disposal—the first concept for a dustbin.[26] In the Ashanti Empire by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was responsible for sanitation in Kumasi and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded.[27]

Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. 1894 destructor furnace. The use of incinerators for waste disposal became popular in the late 19th century.

The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the first incineration plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first incinerator was built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred Fryer.[23] However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas.[28]

Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in other large cities of Europe and North America. In 1895, New York City became the first U.S. city with public-sector garbage management.[26]

Early garbage removal trucks were simply open-bodied dump trucks pulled by a team of horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first closed-body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were introduced in the 1920s in Britain.[29] These were soon equipped with 'hopper mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The Garwood Load Packer was the first truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor.

Waste handling and transport

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Moulded plastic, wheeled waste bin in Berkshire, England

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies for industrial and commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have formal waste-collection systems.

Waste handling and transport

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Curbside collection is the most common method of disposal in most European countries, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and many other parts of the developed world in which waste is collected at regular intervals by specialised trucks. This is often associated with curb-side waste segregation. In rural areas, waste may need to be taken to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to an appropriate disposal facility. In some areas, vacuum collection is used in which waste is transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along small bore tubes. Systems are in use in Europe and North America.

In some jurisdictions, unsegregated waste is collected at the curb-side or from waste transfer stations and then sorted into recyclables and unusable waste. Such systems are capable of sorting large volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into bio-gas and soil conditioners. In San Francisco, the local government established its Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance in support of its goal of "Zero waste by 2020", requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside "Fantastic 3" bin system – blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for landfill-bound materials – provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The city's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system charges customers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The city's Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program has led the city to achieve 80% diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.[30] Other businesses such as Waste Industries use a variety of colors to distinguish between trash and recycling cans. In addition, in some areas of the world the disposal of municipal solid waste can cause environmental strain due to official not having benchmarks that help measure the environmental sustainability of certain practices.[31]

Waste segregation

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Recycling point at the Gdańsk University of Technology

This is the separation of wet waste and dry waste. The purpose is to recycle dry waste easily and to use wet waste as compost. When segregating waste, the amount of waste that gets landfilled reduces considerably, resulting in lower levels of air and water pollution. Importantly, waste segregation should be based on the type of waste and the most appropriate treatment and disposal. This also makes it easier to apply different processes to the waste, like composting, recycling, and incineration. It is important to practice waste management and segregation as a community. One way to practice waste management is to ensure there is awareness. The process of waste segregation should be explained to the community.[32]

Segregated waste is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as much manual sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons why waste segregation is important such as legal obligations, cost savings, and protection of human health and the environment. Institutions should make it as easy as possible for their staff to correctly segregate their waste. This can include labelling, making sure there are enough accessible bins, and clearly indicating why segregation is so important.[33] Labeling is especially important when dealing with nuclear waste due to how much harm to human health the excess products of the nuclear cycle can cause.[34]

Hazards of waste management

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There are multiple facets of waste management that all come with hazards, both for those around the disposal site and those who work within waste management. Exposure to waste of any kind can be detrimental to the health of the individual, primary conditions that worsen with exposure to waste are asthma and tuberculosis.[35] The exposure to waste on an average individual is highly dependent on the conditions around them, those in less developed or lower income areas are more susceptible to the effects of waste product, especially though chemical waste.[36] The range of hazards due to waste is extremely large and covers every type of waste, not only chemical. There are many different guidelines to follow for disposing different types of waste.[37]

Diagram showing the multiple ways that incineration is hazardous to the population

The hazards of incineration are a large risk to many variable communities, including underdeveloped countries and countries or cities with little space for landfills or alternatives. Burning waste is an easily accessible option for many people around the globe, it has even been encouraged by the World Health Organization when there is no other option.[38] Because burning waste is rarely paid attention to, its effects go unnoticed. The release of hazardous materials and CO2 when waste is burned is the largest hazard with incineration.[39]

Financial models

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In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors to opt for the cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally best solution such as re-use and recycling.

Financing solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should render to the citizen. Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on the interest of the donor organization. As much as it is a good way to develop a city's waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what the donor considers important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste management.[40]

An example of a country that enforces a waste tax is Italy. The tax is based on two rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate is based on the size of the house while the variable is determined by the number of people living in the house.[41]

The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed waste management projects usually address the entire lifecycle of waste right from the point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposal.[6]

Disposal methods

[edit]

Landfill

[edit]
A landfill in Łubna, Poland in 1999

A landfill[a] is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens).

Landfills take up a lot of land and pose environmental risks. Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during an earthquake. Once full, the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses.
A landfill compaction vehicle in action.
Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna

Incineration

[edit]
Tarastejärvi Incineration Plant in Tampere, Finland

Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for the disposal of both municipal solid waste and solid residue from wastewater treatment. This process reduces the volume of solid waste by 80 to 95 percent.[42] Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as the emission of gaseous pollutants including substantial quantities of carbon dioxide.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as the facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam, or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organic compounds such as dioxins, furans, and PAHs, which may be created and which may have serious environmental consequences and some heavy metals such as mercury[43] and lead which can be volatilised in the combustion process..

Recycling

[edit]
Steel crushed and baled for recycling

Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. This process involves breaking down and reusing materials that would otherwise be gotten rid of as trash. There are numerous benefits of recycling, and with so many new technologies making even more materials recyclable, it is possible to clean up the Earth.[44] Recycling not only benefits the environment but also positively affects the economy. The materials from which the items are made can be made into new products.[45] Materials for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a procedure called kerbside collection. In some communities, the owner of the waste is required to separate the materials into different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter method is known as "single-stream recycling".[46][47]

A recycling point in Lappajärvi, Finland

The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, rubber tyres, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.

PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.

The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed. Some of the types of recycling include waste paper and cardboard, plastic recycling, metal recycling, electronic devices, wood recycling, glass recycling, cloth and textile and so many more.[48] In July 2017, the Chinese government announced an import ban of 24 categories of recyclables and solid waste, including plastic, textiles and mixed paper, placing tremendous impact on developed countries globally, which exported directly or indirectly to China.[49]

Re-use

[edit]

Biological reprocessing

[edit]
An active compost heap

Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. There are different types of composting and digestion methods and technologies. They vary in complexity from simple home compost heaps to large-scale industrial digestion of mixed domestic waste. The different methods of biological decomposition are classified as aerobic or anaerobic methods. Some methods use the hybrids of these two methods. The anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of solid waste is more environmentally effective than landfill, or incineration.[50] The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See resource recovery).

Energy recovery

[edit]

Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas recovery.[51] This process is often called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery to convert non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat, generates a renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce methane generation from landfills.[51] Globally, waste-to-energy accounts for 16% of waste management.[52]

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid, and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An alternative to pyrolysis is high-temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).

Pyrolysis

[edit]

Pyrolysis is often used to convert many types of domestic and industrial residues into a recovered fuel. Different types of waste input (such as plant waste, food waste, tyres) placed in the pyrolysis process potentially yield an alternative to fossil fuels.[53] Pyrolysis is a process of thermo-chemical decomposition of organic materials by heat in the absence of stoichiometric quantities of oxygen; the decomposition produces various hydrocarbon gases.[54] During pyrolysis, the molecules of an object vibrate at high frequencies to the extent that molecules start breaking down. The rate of pyrolysis increases with temperature. In industrial applications, temperatures are above 430 °C (800 °F).[55]

Slow pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal.[56] Pyrolysis holds promise for conversion of waste biomass into useful liquid fuel. Pyrolysis of waste wood and plastics can potentially produce fuel. The solids left from pyrolysis contain metals, glass, sand, and pyrolysis coke which does not convert to gas. Compared to the process of incineration, certain types of pyrolysis processes release less harmful by-products that contain alkali metals, sulphur, and chlorine. However, pyrolysis of some waste yields gases which impact the environment such as HCl and SO2.[57]

Resource recovery

[edit]

Resource recovery is the systematic diversion of waste, which was intended for disposal, for a specific next use.[58] It is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy.[59] These activities are performed at a resource recovery facility.[59] Resource recovery is not only environmentally important, but it is also cost-effective.[60] It decreases the amount of waste for disposal, saves space in landfills, and conserves natural resources.[60]

Resource recovery, an alternative approach to traditional waste management, utilizes life cycle analysis (LCA) to evaluate and optimize waste handling strategies. Comprehensive studies focusing on mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) have identified a preferred pathway for maximizing resource efficiency and minimizing environmental impact, including effective waste administration and management, source separation of waste materials, efficient collection systems, reuse and recycling of non-organic fractions, and processing of organic material through anaerobic digestion.

As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many items thrown away contain metals that can be recycled to create a profit, such as the components in circuit boards. Wood chippings in pallets and other packaging materials can be recycled into useful products for horticulture. The recycled chips can cover paths, walkways, or arena surfaces.

Application of rational and consistent waste management practices can yield a range of benefits including:

  1. Economic – Improving economic efficiency through the means of resource use, treatment, and disposal and creating markets for recycles can lead to efficient practices in the production and consumption of products and materials resulting in valuable materials being recovered for reuse and the potential for new jobs and new business opportunities.
  2. Social – By reducing adverse impacts on health through proper waste management practices, the resulting consequences are more appealing to civic communities. Better social advantages can lead to new sources of employment and potentially lift communities out of poverty, especially in some of the developing poorer countries and cities.
  3. Environmental – Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the environment through reducing, reusing, recycling, and minimizing resource extraction can result in improved air and water quality and help in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
  4. Inter-generational Equity – Following effective waste management practices can provide subsequent generations a more robust economy, a fairer and more inclusive society and a cleaner environment.[18][page needed]

Waste valorization

[edit]

Waste valorization, beneficial reuse, beneficial use, value recovery or waste reclamation[61] is the process of waste products or residues from an economic process being valorized (given economic value), by reuse or recycling in order to create economically useful materials.[62][61][63] The term comes from practices in sustainable manufacturing and economics, industrial ecology and waste management. The term is usually applied in industrial processes where residue from creating or processing one good is used as a raw material or energy feedstock for another industrial process.[61][63] Industrial wastes in particular are good candidates for valorization because they tend to be more consistent and predictable than other waste, such as household waste.[61][64]

Historically, most industrial processes treated waste products as something to be disposed of, causing industrial pollution unless handled properly.[65] However, increased regulation of residual materials and socioeconomic changes, such as the introduction of ideas about sustainable development and circular economy in the 1990s and 2000s increased focus on industrial practices to recover these resources as value add materials.[65][66] Academics focus on finding economic value to reduce environmental impact of other industries as well, for example the development of non-timber forest products to encourage conservation.

Liquid waste-management

[edit]

Liquid waste is an important category of waste management because it is so difficult to deal with. Unlike solid wastes, liquid wastes cannot be easily picked up and removed from an environment. Liquid wastes spread out, and easily pollute other sources of liquid if brought into contact. This type of waste also soaks into objects like soil and groundwater. This in turn carries over to pollute the plants, the animals in the ecosystem, as well as the humans within the area of the pollution.[67]

Industrial wastewater

[edit]
Wastewater from an industrial process can be converted at a treatment plant to solids and treated water for reuse.

Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for treating wastewater that is produced by industries as an undesirable by-product. After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or effluent) may be reused or released to a sanitary sewer or to a surface water in the environment. Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that can be treated in sewage treatment plants. Most industrial processes, such as petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have their own specialized facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into sewers or into rivers, lakes or oceans.[68]: 1412  This applies to industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia.[69]: 180  Some industries install a pre-treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then discharge the partially treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system.[70]: 60 

Most industries produce some wastewater. Recent trends have been to minimize such production or to recycle treated wastewater within the production process. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants.[71] Sources of industrial wastewater include battery manufacturing, chemical manufacturing, electric power plants, food industry, iron and steel industry, metal working, mines and quarries, nuclear industry, oil and gas extraction, petroleum refining and petrochemicals, pharmaceutical manufacturing, pulp and paper industry, smelters, textile mills, industrial oil contamination, water treatment and wood preserving. Treatment processes include brine treatment, solids removal (e.g. chemical precipitation, filtration), oils and grease removal, removal of biodegradable organics, removal of other organics, removal of acids and alkalis, and removal of toxic materials.

Sewage sludge treatment

[edit]
Sludge treatment in anaerobic digesters at a sewage treatment plant in Cottbus, Germany

Sewage sludge treatment describes the processes used to manage and dispose of sewage sludge produced during sewage treatment. Sludge treatment is focused on reducing sludge weight and volume to reduce transportation and disposal costs, and on reducing potential health risks of disposal options. Water removal is the primary means of weight and volume reduction, while pathogen destruction is frequently accomplished through heating during thermophilic digestion, composting, or incineration. The choice of a sludge treatment method depends on the volume of sludge generated, and comparison of treatment costs required for available disposal options. Air-drying and composting may be attractive to rural communities, while limited land availability may make aerobic digestion and mechanical dewatering preferable for cities, and economies of scale may encourage energy recovery alternatives in metropolitan areas.

Sludge is mostly water with some amounts of solid material removed from liquid sewage. Primary sludge includes settleable solids removed during primary treatment in primary clarifiers. Secondary sludge is sludge separated in secondary clarifiers that are used in secondary treatment bioreactors or processes using inorganic oxidizing agents. In intensive sewage treatment processes, the sludge produced needs to be removed from the liquid line on a continuous basis because the volumes of the tanks in the liquid line have insufficient volume to store sludge.[72] This is done in order to keep the treatment processes compact and in balance (production of sludge approximately equal to the removal of sludge). The sludge removed from the liquid line goes to the sludge treatment line. Aerobic processes (such as the activated sludge process) tend to produce more sludge compared with anaerobic processes. On the other hand, in extensive (natural) treatment processes, such as ponds and constructed wetlands, the produced sludge remains accumulated in the treatment units (liquid line) and is only removed after several years of operation.[73]

Sludge treatment options depend on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants with aerobic digestion for mid-sized operations, and anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale operations. The sludge is sometimes passed through a so-called pre-thickener which de-waters the sludge. Types of pre-thickeners include centrifugal sludge thickeners,[74] rotary drum sludge thickeners and belt filter presses.[75] Dewatered sludge may be incinerated or transported offsite for disposal in a landfill or use as an agricultural soil amendment.[76]

Energy may be recovered from sludge through methane gas production during anaerobic digestion or through incineration of dried sludge, but energy yield is often insufficient to evaporate sludge water content or to power blowers, pumps, or centrifuges required for dewatering. Coarse primary solids and secondary sewage sludge may include toxic chemicals removed from liquid sewage by sorption onto solid particles in clarifier sludge. Reducing sludge volume may increase the concentration of some of these toxic chemicals in the sludge.[77]

Avoidance and reduction methods

[edit]

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste reduction. Waste Minimization is reducing the quantity of hazardous wastes achieved through a thorough application of innovative or alternative procedures.[78] Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new ones, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from cans and packaging,[79] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).[80]

International waste trade

[edit]

The global waste trade is the international trade of waste between countries for further treatment, disposal, or recycling. Toxic or hazardous wastes are often imported by developing countries from developed countries.

The World Bank Report What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management, describes the amount of solid waste produced in a given country. Specifically, countries which produce more solid waste are more economically developed and more industrialized.[81] The report explains that "Generally, the higher the economic development and rate of urbanization, the greater the amount of solid waste produced."[81] Therefore, countries in the Global North, which are more economically developed and urbanized, produce more solid waste than Global South countries.[81]

Current international trade flows of waste follow a pattern of waste being produced in the Global North and being exported to and disposed of in the Global South. Multiple factors affect which countries produce waste and at what magnitude, including geographic location, degree of industrialization, and level of integration into the global economy.

Numerous scholars and researchers have linked the sharp increase in waste trading and the negative impacts of waste trading to the prevalence of neoliberal economic policy.[82][83][84][85] With the major economic transition towards neoliberal economic policy in the 1980s, the shift towards "free-market" policy has facilitated the sharp increase in the global waste trade. Henry Giroux, Chair of Cultural Studies at McMaster University, gives his definition of neoliberal economic policy:

"Neoliberalism ...removes economics and markets from the discourse of social obligations and social costs. ...As a policy and political project, neoliberalism is wedded to the privatization of public services, selling off of state functions, deregulation of finance and labor, elimination of the welfare state and unions, liberalization of trade in goods and capital investment, and the marketization and commodification of society."[86]

Given this economic platform of privatization, neoliberalism is based on expanding free-trade agreements and establishing open-borders to international trade markets. Trade liberalization, a neoliberal economic policy in which trade is completely deregulated, leaving no tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions on international trade, is designed to further developing countries' economies and integrate them into the global economy. Critics claim that although free-market trade liberalization was designed to allow any country the opportunity to reach economic success, the consequences of these policies have been devastating for Global South countries, essentially crippling their economies in a servitude to the Global North.[87] Even supporters such as the International Monetary Fund, “progress of integration has been uneven in recent decades.”[88] Specifically, developing countries have been targeted by trade liberalization policies to import waste as a means of economic expansion.[89] The guiding neoliberal economic policy argues that the way to be integrated into the global economy is to participate in trade liberalization and exchange in international trade markets.[89] Their claim is that smaller countries, with less infrastructure, less wealth, and less manufacturing ability, should take in hazardous wastes as a way to increase profits and stimulate their economies.[89]

Challenges in developing countries

[edit]

Areas with developing economies often experience exhausted waste collection services and inadequately managed and uncontrolled dumpsites. The problems are worsening.[18][page needed][90] Problems with governance complicate the situation. Waste management in these countries and cities is an ongoing challenge due to weak institutions, chronic under-resourcing, and rapid urbanization.[18][page needed] All of these challenges, along with the lack of understanding of different factors that contribute to the hierarchy of waste management, affect the treatment of waste.[91][full citation needed]

In developing countries, waste management activities are usually carried out by the poor, for their survival. It has been estimated that 2% of the population in Asia, Latin America, and Africa are dependent on waste for their livelihood. Family organized, or individual manual scavengers are often involved with waste management practices with very little supportive network and facilities with increased risk of health effects. Additionally, this practice prevents their children from further education. The participation level of most citizens in waste management is very low, residents in urban areas are not actively involved in the process of waste management.[92]

Technologies

[edit]

Traditionally, the waste management industry has been a late adopter of new technologies such as RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.[93] This technology has been used widely by many organizations in some industrialized countries. Radiofrequency identification is a tagging system for automatic identification of recyclable components of municipal solid waste streams.[94]

Smart waste management has been implemented in several cities, including San Francisco, Varde or Madrid.[95] Waste containers are equipped with level sensors. When the container is almost full, the sensor warns the pickup truck, which can thus trace its route servicing the fullest containers and skipping the emptiest ones.[96]

[edit]

The "Global Waste Management Outlook 2024," supported by the Environment Fund - UNEP’s core financial fund, and jointly published with the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), provides a comprehensive update on the trajectory of global waste generation and the escalating costs of waste management since 2018. The report predicts municipal solid waste to rise from 2.3 billion tonnes in 2023 to 3.8 billion tonnes by 2050. The direct global cost of waste management was around USD 252 billion in 2020, which could soar to USD 640.3 billion annually by 2050 if current practices continue without reform. Incorporating life cycle assessments, the report contrasts scenarios from maintaining the status quo to fully adopting zero waste and circular economy principles. It indicates that effective waste prevention and management could cap annual costs at USD 270.2 billion by 2050, while a circular economy approach could transform the sector into a net positive, offering a potential annual gain of USD 108.5 billion. To prevent the direst outcomes, the report calls for immediate action across multiple sectors, including development banks, governments, municipalities, producers, retailers, and citizens, providing targeted strategies for waste reduction and improved management practices.[97]

Waste generated by country, 2020[98]
Country GDP (USD) Population Total waste generated (t) Share of population living in urban areas Waste generated per capita (kg/person)
 Aruba 35,563 103,187 88,132 44% 854
 Afghanistan 2,057 34,656,032 5,628,525 26% 162
 Angola 8,037 25,096,150 4,213,644 67% 168
 Albania 13,724 2,854,191 1,087,447 62% 381
 Andorra 43,712 82,431 43,000 88% 522
 United Arab Emirates 67,119 9,770,529 5,617,682 87% 575
 Argentina 23,550 42,981,516 17,910,550 92% 417
 Armenia 11,020 2,906,220 492,800 63% 170
 American Samoa 11,113 55,599 18,989 87% 342
 Antigua and Barbuda 17,966 96,777 30,585 24% 316
 Australia 47,784 23,789,338 13,345,000 86% 561
 Austria 56,030 8,877,067 5,219,716 59% 588
 Azerbaijan 14,854 9,649,341 2,930,349 56% 304
 Burundi 840 6,741,569 1,872,016 14% 278
 Belgium 51,915 11,484,055 4,765,883 98% 415
 Benin 2,227 5,521,763 685,936 48% 124
 Burkina Faso 1,925 18,110,624 2,575,251 31% 142
 Bangladesh 3,196 155,727,056 14,778,497 38% 95
 Bulgaria 22,279 7,025,037 2,859,190 76% 407
 Bahrain 47,938 1,425,171 951,943 90% 668
 Bahamas 35,400 386,838 264,000 83% 682
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 12,671 3,535,961 1,248,718 49% 353
 Belarus 18,308 9,489,616 4,280,000 79% 451
 Belize 7,259 359,288 101,379 46% 282
 Bermuda 80,982 64,798 82,000 100% 1,265
 Bolivia 7,984 10,724,705 2,219,052 70% 207
 Brazil 14,596 208,494,896 79,069,584 87% 379
 Barbados 15,445 280,601 174,815 31% 623
 Brunei 60,866 423,196 216,253 78% 511
 Bhutan 6,743 686,958 111,314 42% 162
 Botswana 14,126 2,014,866 210,854 71% 105
 Central African Republic 823 4,515,392 1,105,983 42% 245
 Canada 47,672 35,544,564 25,103,034 82% 706
  Switzerland 68,394 8,574,832 6,079,556 74% 709
 Channel Islands 46,673 164,541 178,933 31% 1,087
 Chile 20,362 16,829,442 6,517,000 88% 387
 China 16,092 1,400,050,048 395,081,376 61% 282
 Côte d'Ivoire 3,661 20,401,332 4,440,814 52% 218
 Cameroon 3,263 21,655,716 3,270,617 58% 151
 Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,056 78,736,152 14,385,226 46% 183
 Republic of the Congo 4,900 2,648,507 451,200 68% 170
 Colombia 12,523 46,406,648 12,150,120 81% 262
 Comoros 2,960 777,424 91,013 29% 117
 Cape Verde 6,354 513,979 132,555 67% 258
 Costa Rica 18,169 4,757,575 1,460,000 81% 307
 Cuba 12,985 11,303,687 2,692,692 77% 238
 Curaçao 27,504 153,822 24,704 89 161
 Cayman Islands 66,207 59,172 60,000 100% 1,014
 Cyprus 39,545 1,198,575 769,485 67% 642
 Germany 53,785 83,132,800 50,627,876 77% 609
 Djibouti 6,597 746,221 114,997 78% 154
 Dominica 11,709 72,400 13,176 71% 182
 Denmark 57,821 5,818,553 4,910,859 88% 844
 Dominican Republic 15,328 10,528,394 4,063,910 83% 386
 Algeria 11,826 40,606,052 12,378,740 74% 305
 Ecuador 11,896 16,144,368 5,297,211 64% 328
 Egypt 10,301 87,813,256 21,000,000 43% 239
 Eritrea 1,715 4,474,690 726,957 41% 162
 Spain 40,986 47,076,780 22,408,548 81% 476
 Estonia 36,956 1,326,590 489,512 69% 369
 Ethiopia 1,779 99,873,032 6,532,787 22% 65
 Finland 48,814 5,520,314 3,124,498 86% 566
 Fiji 10,788 867,086 189,390 57% 218
 France 46,110 67,059,888 36,748,820 81% 548
 Faroe Islands 44,403 48,842 61,000 42% 1,249
 Federated States of Micronesia 3,440 104,937 26,040 23% 248
 Gabon 18,515 1,086,137 238,102 90% 219
 United Kingdom 46,290 66,460,344 30,771,140 84% 463
 Georgia 12,605 3,717,100 800,000 59% 215
 Ghana 3,093 21,542,008 3,538,275 57% 164
 Gibraltar 43,712 33,623 16,954 100% 504
 Guinea 1,623 8,132,552 596,911 37% 73
 Gambia 2,181 1,311,349 193,441 63% 148
 Guinea-Bissau 1,800 1,770,526 289,514 44% 164
 Equatorial Guinea 24,827 1,221,490 198,443 73% 162
 Greece 30,465 10,716,322 5,615,353 80% 524
 Grenada 13,208 105,481 29,536 37% 280
 Greenland 43,949 56,905 50,000 87% 879
 Guatemala 8,125 16,252,429 2,756,741 52% 170
 Guam 59,075 159,973 141,500 95% 885
 Guyana 9,812 746,556 179,252 27% 240
 Hong Kong 57,216 7,305,700 5,679,816 100% 777
 Honduras 5,396 9,112,867 2,162,028 58% 237
 Croatia 28,829 4,067,500 1,810,038 58% 445
 Haiti 2,953 10,847,334 2,309,852 57% 213
 Hungary 32,643 9,769,949 3,780,970 72% 387
 Indonesia 10,531 261,115,456 65,200,000 57% 250
 Isle of Man 44,204 80,759 50,551 53% 626
 India 6,497 1,352,617,344 189,750,000 35% 140
 Ireland 83,389 4,867,316 2,910,655 64% 598
 Iran 14,536 80,277,424 17,885,000 76% 223
 Iraq 10,311 36,115,648 13,140,000 71% 364
 Iceland 55,274 343,400 225,270 94% 656
 Israel 37,688 8,380,100 5,400,000 93% 644
 Italy 42,420 60,297,396 30,088,400 71% 499
 Jamaica 9,551 2,881,355 1,051,695 56% 365
 Jordan 10,413 8,413,464 2,529,997 91% 301
 Japan 41,310 126,529,104 42,720,000 92% 338
 Kazakhstan 22,703 16,791,424 4,659,740 58% 278
 Kenya 3,330 41,350,152 5,595,099 28% 135
 Kyrgyzstan 4,805 5,956,900 1,113,300 37% 187
 Cambodia 3,364 15,270,790 1,089,000 24% 71
 Kiribati 2,250 114,395 35,724 56% 312
 Saint Kitts and Nevis 25,569 54,288 32,892 31% 606
 South Korea 42,105 51,606,632 20,452,776 81% 396
 Kuwait 58,810 2,998,083 1,750,000 100% 584
 Laos 6,544 6,663,967 351,900 36% 53
 Lebanon 16,967 5,603,279 2,040,000 89% 364
 Liberia 1,333 3,512,932 564,467 52% 161
 Libya 8,480 6,193,501 2,147,596 81% 347
 Saint Lucia 14,030 177,206 77,616 19% 438
 Liechtenstein 45,727 36,545 32,382 14% 886
 Sri Lanka 12,287 21,203,000 2,631,650 19% 124
 Lesotho 1,979 1,965,662 73,457 29% 37
 Lithuania 37,278 2,786,844 1,315,390 68% 472
 Luxembourg 114,323 619,896 490,338 91% 791
 Latvia 30,982 1,912,789 839,714 68% 439
 Macau 117,336 612,167 377,942 100% 617
 Morocco 6,915 34,318,080 6,852,000 64% 200
 Monaco 43,712 37,783 46,000 100% 1,217
 Moldova 10,361 3,554,108 3,981,200 43% 1,120
 Madagascar 1,566 24,894,552 3,768,759 39% 151
 Maldives 17,285 409,163 211,506 41% 517
 Mexico 19,332 125,890,952 53,100,000 81% 422
 Marshall Islands 3,629 52,793 8,614 78% 163
 North Macedonia 16,148 2,082,958 626,970 58% 301
 Mali 2,008 16,006,670 1,937,354 44% 121
 Malta 43,708 502,653 348,841 95% 694
 Myanmar 1,094 46,095,464 4,677,307 31% 101
 Montenegro 20,753 622,227 329,780 67% 530
 Mongolia 10,940 3,027,398 2,900,000 69% 958
 Northern Mariana Islands 60,956 54,036 32,761 92% 606
 Mozambique 1,217 27,212,382 2,500,000 37% 92
 Mauritania 4,784 3,506,288 454,000 55% 129
 Mauritius 20,647 1,263,473 438,000 41% 347
 Malawi 999 16,577,147 1,297,844 17% 78
 Malaysia 23,906 30,228,016 12,982,685 77% 429
 Namibia 6,153 1,559,983 256,729 52% 165
 New Caledonia 57,330 278,000 108,157 72% 389
 Niger 1,038 8,842,415 1,865,646 17% 211
 Nigeria 4,690 154,402,176 27,614,830 52% 179
 Nicaragua 4,612 5,737,723 1,528,816 59% 266
 Netherlands 56,849 17,332,850 8,805,088 92% 508
 Norway 64,962 5,347,896 4,149,967 83% 776
   Nepal 2,902 28,982,772 1,768,977 21% 61
 Nauru 11,167 13,049 6,192 100% 475
 New Zealand 41,857 4,692,700 3,405,000 87% 726
 Oman 30,536 3,960,925 1,734,885 86% 438
 Pakistan 4,571 193,203,472 30,760,000 37% 159
 Panama 28,436 3,969,249 1,472,262 68% 371
 Peru 11,877 30,973,354 8,356,711 78% 270
 Philippines 7,705 103,320,224 14,631,923 47% 142
 Palau 18,275 21,503 9,427 81% 438
 Papua New Guinea 3,912 7,755,785 1,000,000 13% 129
 Poland 33,222 37,970,872 12,758,213 60% 336
 Puerto Rico 34,311 3,473,181 4,170,953 94% 1,201
 Portugal 34,962 10,269,417 5,268,211 66% 513
 Paraguay 11,810 6,639,119 1,818,501 62% 274
 Palestine 5,986 4,046,901 1,387,000 77% 343
 French Polynesia 60,956 273,528 147,000 62% 537
 Qatar 96,262 2,109,568 1,000,990 99% 475
 Romania 29,984 19,356,544 5,419,833 54% 280
 Russia 26,013 143,201,680 60,000,000 75% 419
 Rwanda 1,951 11,917,508 4,384,969 17% 368
 Saudi Arabia 48,921 31,557,144 16,125,701 84% 511
 Sudan 4,192 38,647,804 2,831,291 35% 73
 Senegal 3,068 15,411,614 2,454,059 48% 159
 Singapore 97,341 5,703,600 1,870,000 100% 328
 Solomon Islands 2,596 563,513 179,972 25% 319
 Sierra Leone 1,238 5,439,695 610,222 43% 112
 El Salvador 7,329 6,164,626 1,648,996 73% 267
 San Marino 58,806 33,203 17,175 97% 517
 Somalia 1,863 14,317,996 2,326,099 46% 162
 Serbia 18,351 6,944,975 2,347,402 56% 338
 South Sudan 1,796 11,177,490 2,680,681 20% 240
 São Tomé and Príncipe 3,721 191,266 25,587 74% 134
 Suriname 16,954 526,103 78,620 66% 149
 Slovakia 31,966 5,454,073 2,296,165 54% 421
 Slovenia 39,038 2,087,946 1,052,325 55% 504
 Sweden 52,609 10,285,453 4,618,169 88% 449
 Eswatini 8,321 1,343,098 218,199 24% 162
 Seychelles 23,303 88,303 48,000 58% 544
 Syria 8,587 20,824,892 4,500,000 55% 216
 Chad 1,733 11,887,202 1,358,851 24% 114
 Togo 1,404 7,228,915 1,109,030 43% 153
 Thailand 16,302 68,657,600 26,853,366 51% 391
 Tajikistan 2,616 8,177,809 1,787,400 28% 219
 Turkmenistan 11,471 5,366,277 500,000 53% 93
 Timor-Leste 3,345 1,268,671 63,875 31% 50
 Tonga 5,636 104,951 17,238 23% 164
 Trinidad and Tobago 28,911 1,328,100 727,874 53% 548
 Tunisia 10,505 11,143,908 2,700,000 70% 242
 Turkey 28,289 83,429,616 35,374,156 76% 424
 Tuvalu 3,793 11,097 3,989 64% 360
 Tanzania 2,129 49,082,996 9,276,995 35% 189
 Uganda 1,972 35,093,648 7,045,050 25% 201
 Ukraine 11,535 45,004,644 15,242,025 70% 339
 Uruguay 20,588 3,431,552 1,260,140 96% 367
 United States of America 61,498 326,687,488 265,224,528 83% 812
 Uzbekistan 5,164 29,774,500 4,000,000 50% 134
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 11,972 109,455 31,561 53% 288
 Venezuela 14,270 29,893,080 9,779,093 88% 327
 British Virgin Islands 24,216 20,645 21,099 49% 1,022
 United States Virgin Islands 30,437 105,784 146,500 96% 1,385
 Vietnam 5,089 86,932,496 9,570,300 37% 110
 Vanuatu 3,062 270,402 70,225 26% 260
 Samoa 6,211 187,665 27,399 18% 146
 Yemen 8,270 27,584,212 4,836,820 38% 175
 South Africa 12,667 51,729,344 18,457,232 67% 357
 Zambia 3,201 14,264,756 2,608,268 45% 183
 Zimbabwe 3,191 12,500,525 1,449,752 32% 116

Waste management by region

[edit]

China

[edit]

Municipal solid waste generation shows spatiotemporal variation. In spatial distribution, the point sources in eastern coastal regions are quite different. Guangdong, Shanghai and Tianjin produced MSW of 30.35, 7.85 and 2.95 Mt, respectively. In temporal distribution, during 2009–2018, Fujian province showed a 123% increase in MSW generation while Liaoning province showed only 7% increase, whereas Shanghai special zone had a decline of −11% after 2013. MSW composition characteristics are complicated. The major components such as kitchen waste, paper and rubber & plastics in different eastern coastal cities have fluctuation in the range of 52.8–65.3%, 3.5–11.9%, and 9.9–19.1%, respectively. Treatment rate of consumption waste is up to 99% with a sum of 52% landfill, 45% incineration, and 3% composting technologies, indicating that landfill still dominates MSW treatment.[99]

Morocco

[edit]

Morocco has seen benefits from implementing a $300 million sanitary landfill system. While it might appear to be a costly investment, the country's government predicts that it has saved them another $440 million in damages, or consequences of failing to dispose of waste properly.[100]

San Francisco

[edit]

San Francisco started to make changes to their waste management policies in 2009 with the expectation to be zero waste by 2030.[101] Council made changes such as making recycling and composting a mandatory practice for businesses and individuals, banning Styrofoam and plastic bags, putting charges on paper bags, and increasing garbage collection rates.[101][102] Businesses are fiscally rewarded for correct disposal of recycling and composting and taxed for incorrect disposal. Besides these policies, the waste bins were manufactured in various sizes. The compost bin is the largest, the recycling bin is second, and the garbage bin is the smallest. This encourages individuals to sort their waste thoughtfully with respect to the sizes. These systems are working because they were able to divert 80% of waste from the landfill, which is the highest rate of any major U.S. city.[101] Despite all these changes, Debbie Raphael, director of the San Francisco Department of the Environment, states that zero waste is still not achievable until all products are designed differently to be able to be recycled or compostable.[101]

Turkey

[edit]
Turkey generates about 30 million tons of solid municipal waste per year; the annual amount of waste generated per capita amounts to about 400 kilograms.[103] According to Waste Atlas, Turkey's waste collection coverage rate is 77%, whereas its unsound waste disposal rate is 69%.[103] While the country has a strong legal framework in terms of laying down common provisions for waste management, the implementation process has been considered slow since the beginning of 1990s.

United Kingdom

[edit]

Waste management policy in England is the responsibility of the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). In England, the "Waste Management Plan for England" presents a compilation of waste management policies.[104] In the devolved nations such as Scotland Waste management policy is a responsibility of their own respective departments.

Zambia

[edit]

In Zambia, ASAZA is a community-based organization whose principal purpose is to complement the efforts of the Government and cooperating partners to uplift the standard of living for disadvantaged communities. The project's main objective is to minimize the problem of indiscriminate littering which leads to land degradation and pollution of the environment. ASAZA is also at the same time helping alleviate the problems of unemployment and poverty through income generation and payment of participants, women, and unskilled youths.[105]

E-waste

[edit]

A record 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of electronic waste was generated worldwide in 2019, up 21 percent in just five years, according to the UN's Global E-waste Monitor 2020, released today. The new report also predicts global e-waste – discarded products with a battery or plug – will reach 74 Mt by 2030, almost a doubling of e-waste in just 16 years. This makes e-waste the world's fastest-growing domestic waste stream, fueled mainly by higher consumption rates of electric and electronic equipment, short life cycles, and few options for repair. Only 17.4 percent of 2019's e-waste was collected and recycled. This means that gold, silver, copper, platinum, and other high-value, recoverable materials conservatively valued at US$57 billion – a sum greater than the Gross Domestic Product of most countries – were mostly dumped or burned rather than being collected for treatment and reuse.[106] E-wasteis predicted to double by 2050.[107][108]

Transboundary movement of e-waste

[edit]

The Transboundary E-waste Flows Monitor quantified that 5.1 Mt (just below 10 percent of the total amount of global e-waste, 53.6 Mt) crossed country borders in 2019. To better understand the implication of transboundary movement, this study categorizes the transboundary movement of e-waste into controlled and uncontrolled movements and also considers both the receiving and sending regions.[109]

Scientific journals

[edit]

Related scientific journals in this area include:

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Also known as a tip, dump, rubbish tip, rubbish dump, garbage dump, trash dump, or dumping ground.

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  87. ^ Gérard Duménil; Dominique Lévy (23 September 2005). "Neoliberalism – Neoimperialism" (PDF). EconomiX-CNRS and PSE-CNRS: 1–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014.
  88. ^ "Global Trade Liberalization and the Developing Countries". An IMF Issues Brief. International Monetary Fund. November 2001. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
  89. ^ a b c Jay Johnson; Gary Pecquet; Leon Taylor (Fall 2007). "Potential Gains from Trade in Dirty Industries: Revisiting Lawrence Summers' Memo" (PDF). Cato Journal. 27 (3). Cato Institute: 398–402.
  90. ^ Dao-Tuan, Anh; Nguyen-Thi-Ngoc, Anh; Nguyen-Trong, Khanh; Bui-Tuan, Anh; Dinh-Thi-Hai, Van (2018), Chen, Yuanfang; Duong, Trung Q. (eds.), "Optimizing Vehicle Routing with Path and Carbon Dioxide Emission for Municipal Solid Waste Collection in Ha Giang, Vietnam", Industrial Networks and Intelligent Systems, Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering, vol. 221, Springer International Publishing, pp. 212–227, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74176-5_19, ISBN 9783319741758
  91. ^ Abarca Guerrero, Lilliana; Maas, Ger; Hogland, William (2013). "Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries" (PDF). Waste Management. 33 (1): 220–232. Bibcode:2013WaMan..33..220G. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008. PMID 23098815. S2CID 205673283. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2024 – via Academia Ucentral.
  92. ^ Zafar, Salman (29 January 2020). "Waste Management Challenges in Developing Nations". BioEnergy Consult. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  93. ^ Claire Swedberg (4 February 2014). "Air-Trak Brings Visibility to Waste Management". RFID Journal. Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
  94. ^ Abdoli, S (28 September 2020). "RFID Application in Municipal Solid Waste Management system". International Journal of Environmental Research – via ResearchGate.
  95. ^ "Sensors Used in Waste Management". NORD SENSE. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
  96. ^ "Madrid: Eliminating Overflowing Waste with Reliable and High-Quality Data". NORD SENSE. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
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  98. ^ "No time to waste: A sustainability challenge for cities". Atlas of Sustainable Development Goals 2023. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
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[edit]

A landfill in Łubna, Poland in 1999

A landfill[a] is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens).

Landfills take up a lot of land and pose environmental risks. Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during an earthquake. Once full, the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses.

Operations

[edit]
One of several landfills used by Dryden, Ontario, Canada
Garbage dumped in the middle of a road in Karachi, Pakistan

Operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to:[1]

  1. confine waste to as small an area as possible
  2. compact waste to reduce volume[2]

They can also cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as woodchips and fine particles.

During landfill operations, a scale or weighbridge may weigh waste collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with the landfill's waste-acceptance criteria.[2] Afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips.

Typically, in the working face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other "green waste",[3] several sprayed-on foam products, chemically "fixed" bio-solids, and temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the compacted waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities.

Sanitary landfill life cycle

[edit]
Sanitary landfill diagram

The term landfill is usually shorthand for a municipal landfill or sanitary landfill. These facilities were first introduced early in the 20th century, but gained wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in an effort to eliminate open dumps and other "unsanitary" waste disposal practices. The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste. Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors (bioreactors) in which microbes will break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time. These reactors must be designed and operated according to regulatory standards and guidelines (See environmental engineering).

Usually, aerobic decomposition is the first stage by which wastes are broken down in a landfill. These are followed by four stages of anaerobic degradation. Usually, solid organic material in solid phase decays rapidly as larger organic molecules degrade into smaller molecules. These smaller organic molecules begin to dissolve and move to the liquid phase, followed by hydrolysis of these organic molecules, and the hydrolyzed compounds then undergo transformation and volatilization as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), with rest of the waste remaining in solid and liquid phases.

During the early phases, little material volume reaches the leachate, as the biodegradable organic matter of the waste undergoes a rapid decrease in volume. Meanwhile, the leachate's chemical oxygen demand increases with increasing concentrations of the more recalcitrant compounds compared to the more reactive compounds in the leachate. Successful conversion and stabilization of the waste depend on how well microbial populations function in syntrophy, i.e. an interaction of different populations to provide each other's nutritional needs.:[4]

The life cycle of a municipal landfill undergoes five distinct phases:[5][4]

Initial adjustment (Phase I)

[edit]

As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O2). With added and compacted wastes, the O2 content of the landfill bioreactor strata gradually decreases. Microbial populations grow, density increases. Aerobic biodegradation dominates, i.e. the primary electron acceptor is O2.

Transition (Phase II)

[edit]

The O2 is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations. The decreasing O2 leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers. The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates since O2 is rapidly displaced by CO2 in the effluent gas.

Acid formation (Phase III)

[edit]

Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which leads to rapid accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the leachate. The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate pH from approximately 7.5 to 5.6. During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much chemical oxygen demand (COD). Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (C2H4O2), CO2, and hydrogen gas (H2). High concentrations of VFAs increase both the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and VOA concentrations, which initiates H2 production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth of H2-oxidizing bacteria. The H2 generation phase is relatively short because it is complete by the end of the acid formation phase. The increase in the biomass of acidogenic bacteria increases the amount of degradation of the waste material and consuming nutrients. Metals, which are generally more water-soluble at lower pH, may become more mobile during this phase, leading to increasing metal concentrations in the leachate.

Methane fermentation (Phase IV)

[edit]

The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are converted to CH4 and CO2 by methanogenic microorganisms. As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality. The leachate's organic strength, expressed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with increases in CH4 and CO2 gas production. This is the longest decomposition phase.

Final maturation and stabilization (Phase V)

[edit]

The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as bioavailable phosphorus becomes increasingly scarce. CH4 production almost completely disappears, with O2 and oxidized species gradually reappearing in the gas wells as O2 permeates downwardly from the troposphere. This transforms the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) in the leachate toward oxidative processes. The residual organic materials may incrementally be converted to the gas phase, and as organic matter is composted; i.e. the organic matter is converted to humic-like compounds.[6]

Social and environmental impact

[edit]
Landfill operation in Hawaii. The area being filled is a single, well-defined "cell" and a protective landfill liner is in place (exposed on the left) to prevent contamination by leachates migrating downward through the underlying geological formation.

Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and watercourses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems. Pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well.

Leachate

[edit]

When precipitation falls on open landfills, water percolates through the garbage and becomes contaminated with suspended and dissolved material, forming leachate. If this is not contained it can contaminate groundwater. All modern landfill sites use a combination of impermeable liners several metres thick, geologically stable sites and collection systems to contain and capture this leachate. It can then be treated and evaporated. Once a landfill site is full, it is sealed off to prevent precipitation ingress and new leachate formation. However, liners must have a lifespan, be it several hundred years or more. Eventually, any landfill liner could leak,[7] so the ground around landfills must be tested for leachate to prevent pollutants from contaminating groundwater.

Decomposition gases

[edit]

Rotting food and other decaying organic waste create decomposition gases, especially CO2 and CH4 from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, respectively. Both processes occur simultaneously in different parts of a landfill. In addition to available O2, the fraction of gas constituents will vary, depending on the age of landfill, type of waste, moisture content and other factors. For example, the maximum amount of landfill gas produced can be illustrated a simplified net reaction of diethyl oxalate that accounts for these simultaneous reactions:[8]

4 C6H10O4 + 6 H2O → 13 CH4 + 11 CO2

On average, about half of the volumetric concentration of landfill gas is CH4 and slightly less than half is CO2. The gas also contains about 5% molecular nitrogen (N2), less than 1% hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and a low concentration of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC), about 2700 ppmv.[8]

Waste disposal in Athens, Greece

Landfill gases can seep out of the landfill and into the surrounding air and soil. Methane is a greenhouse gas, and is flammable and potentially explosive at certain concentrations, which makes it perfect for burning to generate electricity cleanly. Since decomposing plant matter and food waste only release carbon that has been captured from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, no new carbon enters the carbon cycle and the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is not affected. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.[9] In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and flared or recovered for landfill gas utilization.

Vectors

[edit]

Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies which can spread infectious diseases. The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through the use of daily cover.

Other nuisances

[edit]
A group of wild elephants interacting with a trash dump in Sri Lanka

Other potential issues include wildlife disruption due to occupation of habitat[10] and animal health disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills,[11] dust, odor, noise pollution, and reduced local property values.

Landfill gas

[edit]
A gas flare produced by a landfill in Lake County, Ohio

Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a properly managed landfill, this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to the landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity. Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills have active landfill gas recovery systems.[12]

Solar landfill

[edit]
Solar arrays on a full landfill in Rehoboth, MA

A Solar landfill is a repurposed used landfill that is converted to a solar array solar farm.[13]

Regional practice

[edit]
A landfill in Perth, Western Australia
South East New Territories Landfill, Hong Kong

Canada

[edit]

Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and environmental protection legislation.[14] Older facilities tend to fall under current standards and are monitored for leaching.[15] Some former locations have been converted to parkland.

European Union

[edit]
The Rusko landfill in Oulu, Finland

In the European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply with the requirements and obligations of the European Landfill Directive.

The majority of EU member states have laws banning or severely restricting the disposal of household trash via landfills.[16]

India

[edit]

Landfilling is currently the major method of municipal waste disposal in India. India also has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai.[17] However, issues frequently arise due to the alarming growth rate of landfills and poor management by authorities.[18] On and under surface fires have been commonly seen in the Indian landfills over the last few years.[17]

United Kingdom

[edit]

Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the challenges of the European Landfill Directive. The UK now imposes landfill tax upon biodegradable waste which is put into landfills. In addition to this the Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme has been established for local authorities to trade landfill quotas in England. A different system operates in Wales where authorities cannot 'trade' amongst themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill Allowance Scheme.

United States

[edit]

U.S. landfills are regulated by each state's environmental agency, which establishes minimum guidelines; however, none of these standards may fall below those set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).[19]

Permitting a landfill generally takes between five and seven years, costs millions of dollars and requires rigorous siting, engineering and environmental studies and demonstrations to ensure local environmental and safety concerns are satisfied.[20]

Types

[edit]

Microbial topics

[edit]

The status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency.[23]

Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills.[24]

Reclaiming materials

[edit]

One can treat landfills as a viable and abundant source of materials and energy. In the developing world, waste pickers often scavenge for still-usable materials. In commercial contexts, companies have also discovered landfill sites, and many[quantify] have begun harvesting materials and energy.[25] Well-known examples include gas-recovery facilities.[26] Other commercial facilities include waste incinerators which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery is possible through the use of filters (electro filter, active-carbon and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO2-washer, bottom ash-grating, etc.).

Alternatives

[edit]

In addition to waste reduction and recycling strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including waste-to-energy incineration, anaerobic digestion, composting, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and plasma arc gasification. Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills.

The goal of the zero waste concept is to minimize landfill volume.[27]

Restrictions

[edit]

Countries including Germany, Austria, Sweden,[28] Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, have banned the disposal of untreated waste in landfills.[citation needed] In these countries, only certain hazardous wastes, fly ashes from incineration or the stabilized output of mechanical biological treatment plants may still be deposited.[citation needed]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Also known as a tip, dump, rubbish tip, rubbish dump, garbage dump, trash dump, or dumping ground.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Waste Management. Background information. General objectives of waste policy" (PDF). www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org. Retrieved May 10, 2024.
  2. ^ a b "How a Landfill Operates". www.co.cumberland.nc.us. Retrieved February 22, 2020.
  3. ^ "Alternative Daily Cover (ADC)". Archived from the original on June 5, 2012. Retrieved September 14, 2012.
  4. ^ a b Letcher, T.M.; Vallero, D.A., eds. (2019). Municipal Landfill, D. Vallero and G. Blight, pp. 235–249 in Waste: A Handbook for Management. Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, Print Book: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 9780128150603. 804 pages.
  5. ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Landfill bioreactor performance: second interim report: outer loop recycling & disposal facility - Louisville, Kentucky, EPA/600/R-07/060
  6. ^ Weitz, Keith; Barlaz, Morton; Ranjithan, Ranji; Brill, Downey; Thorneloe, Susan; Ham, Robert (July 1999). "Life Cycle Management of Municipal Solid Waste". The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 4 (4): 195–201. Bibcode:1999IJLCA...4..195W. doi:10.1007/BF02979496. ISSN 0948-3349. S2CID 108698198.
  7. ^ US EPA, "Solid Waste Disposal Facility Criteria; Proposed Rule", Federal Register 53(168):33314–33422, 40 CFR Parts 257 and 258, US EPA, Washington, D.C., August 30 (1988a).
  8. ^ a b Themelis, Nickolas J., and Priscilla A. Ulloa. "Methane generation in landfills." Renewable Energy 32.7 (2007), 1243–1257
  9. ^ "CO2 101: Why is carbon dioxide bad?". Mother Nature Network. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
  10. ^ "How does landfill and litter affect our wildlife?". MY ZERO WASTE. January 30, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2020.
  11. ^ "Landfills are Ruining Lives". www.cdenviro.com. Retrieved February 22, 2020.
  12. ^ Powell, Jon T.; Townsend, Timothy G.; Zimmerman, Julie B. (September 21, 2015). "Estimates of solid waste disposal rates and reduction targets for landfill gas emissions". Nature Climate Change. 6 (2): 162–165. doi:10.1038/nclimate2804.
  13. ^ "U.S. Landfills Are Getting a Second Life as Solar Farms". TIME. June 2, 2022.
  14. ^ "Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks | ontario.ca". www.ontario.ca.
  15. ^ "Aging Landfills: Ontario's Forgotten Polluterswork=Eco Issues". September 28, 2010. Archived from the original on September 28, 2010.
  16. ^ "CEWEP - The Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants".
  17. ^ a b "Fighting Mountains Of Garbage: Here Is How Indian Cities Dealt With Landfill Crisis In 2018 | Swachh Year Ender". NDTV. December 31, 2018. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
  18. ^ Cassella, Carly (June 5, 2019). "India's 'Mount Everest' of Trash Is Growing So Fast, It Needs Aircraft Warning Lights". ScienceAlert. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
  19. ^ Horinko, Marianne, Cathryn Courtin. "Waste Management: A Half Century of Progress." EPA Alumni Association. March 2016.
  20. ^ "Modern landfills". Archived from the original on February 22, 2015. Retrieved February 21, 2015.
  21. ^ EPA, OSWER, ORCR, US (March 24, 2016). "Basic Information about Landfills". www.epa.gov. Retrieved March 14, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ "Disposal and Storage of Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Waste". United States Environmental Protection Agency. August 19, 2015. Retrieved May 10, 2017.
  23. ^ Gomez, A.M.; Yannarell, A.C.; Sims, G.K.; Cadavid-Resterpoa, G.; Herrera, C.X.M. (2011). "Characterization of bacterial diversity at different depths in the Moravia Hill Landfill site at Medellín, Colombia". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 43 (6): 1275–1284. Bibcode:2011SBiBi..43.1275G. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.02.018.
  24. ^ Gwyneth Dickey Zaikab (March 2011). "Marine microbes digest plastic". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2011.191.
  25. ^ "Sinologie Spectrum". www.chinalize.nl. Archived from the original on December 8, 2009.
  26. ^ "Commercial exploitation of gas from landfills". Archived from the original on October 24, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2009.
  27. ^ Qi, Shiyue; Chen, Ying; Wang, Xuexue; Yang, Yang; Teng, Jingjie; Wang, Yongming (March 2024). "Exploration and practice of "zero-waste city" in China". Circular Economy. 3 (1). doi:10.1016/j.cec.2024.100079.
  28. ^ "Regeringskansliets rättsdatabaser". rkrattsbaser.gov.se (in Swedish). Retrieved May 9, 2019.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]

A sewage treatment plant that uses solar energy, located at Santuari de Lluc monastery in Spain.
Environmentally friendly speed warning powered by solar and wind power.

Environment friendly processes, or environmental-friendly processes (also referred to as eco-friendly, nature-friendly, and green), are sustainability and marketing terms referring to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies that claim reduced, minimal, or no harm upon ecosystems or the environment.[1]

Companies use these ambiguous terms to promote goods and services, sometimes with additional, more specific certifications, such as ecolabels. Their overuse can be referred to as greenwashing.[2][3][4] To ensure the successful meeting of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) companies are advised to employ environmental friendly processes in their production.[5] Specifically, Sustainable Development Goal 12 measures 11 targets and 13 indicators "to ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns".[6]

The International Organization for Standardization has developed ISO 14020 and ISO 14024 to establish principles and procedures for environmental labels and declarations that certifiers and eco-labellers should follow. In particular, these standards relate to the avoidance of financial conflicts of interest, the use of sound scientific methods and accepted test procedures, and openness and transparency in the setting of standards.[7]

Regional variants

[edit]

Europe

[edit]

Products located in members of the European Union can use the EU Ecolabel pending the EU's approval.[8] EMAS is another EU label[9][10] that signifies whether an organization management is green as opposed to the product.[11] Germany also uses the Blue Angel, based on Germany's standard.[12][13]

In Europe, there are many different ways that companies are using environmentally friendly processes, eco-friendly labels, and overall changing guidelines to ensure that there is less harm being done to the environment and ecosystems while their products are being made. In Europe, for example, many companies are already using EMAS[citation needed] labels to show that their products are friendly.[14]

Companies

[edit]

Many companies in Europe make putting eco-labels on their products a top-priority since it can result to an increase in sales when there are eco-labels on these products. In Europe specifically, a study was conducted that shows a connection between eco-labels and the purchasing of fish: "Our results show a significant connection between the desire for eco-labeling and seafood features, especially the freshness of the fish, the geographical origin of the fish and the wild vs farmed origin of the fish".[15] This article shows that eco-labels are not only reflecting a positive impact on the environment when it comes to creating and preserving products, but also increase sales. However, not all European countries agree on whether certain products, especially fish, should have eco-labels. In the same article, it is remarked: "Surprisingly, the country effect on the probability of accepting a fish eco-label is tricky to interpret. The countries with the highest level of eco-labeling acceptability are Belgium and France".[16] According to the same analysis and statistics, France and Belgium are most likely of accepting these eco-labels.

North America

[edit]

In the United States, environmental marketing claims require caution. Ambiguous titles such as environmentally friendly can be confusing without a specific definition; some regulators are providing guidance.[17] The United States Environmental Protection Agency has deemed some ecolabels misleading in determining whether a product is truly "green".[18]

In Canada, one label is that of the Environmental Choice Program.[12] Created in 1988,[19] only products approved by the program are allowed to display the label.[20]

Overall, Mexico was one of the first countries in the world to pass a specific law on climate change. The law set an obligatory target of reducing national greenhouse-gas emissions by 30% by 2020. The country also has a National Climate Change Strategy, which is intended to guide policymaking over the next 40 years.[21]

Oceania

[edit]

The Energy Rating Label is a Type III label[22][23] that provides information on "energy service per unit of energy consumption".[24] It was first created in 1986, but negotiations led to a redesign in 2000.[25]

Oceania generates the second most e-waste, 16.1 kg, while having the third lowest recycling rate of 8.8%.[26] Out of Oceania, only Australia has a policy in policy to manage e-waste, that being the Policy Stewardship Act published in 2011 that aimed to manage the impact of products, mainly those in reference to the disposal of products and their waste.[27] Under the Act the National Television and Computer Recycling Scheme (NTCRS) was created, which forced manufactures and importers of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) importing 5000 or more products or 15000 or more peripherals be liable and required to pay the NTCRS for retrieving and recycling materials from electronic products.

New Zealand does not have any law that directly manages their e-waste, instead they have voluntary product stewardship schemes such as supplier trade back and trade-in schemes and voluntary recycling drop-off points. Though this has helped it costs the provider money with labor taking up 90% of the cost of recycling. In addition, e-waste is currently not considered a priority product, which would encourage the enforcement of product stewardship. In Pacific Island Regions (PIR), e-waste management is a hard task since they lack the adequate amount of land to properly dispose of it even though they produce one of the lowest amounts of e-waste in the world due to their income and population. Due to this there are large stockpiles of waste unable to be recycled safely.

Currently, The Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), an organization in charge of managing the natural resources and environment of the Pacific region, is in charge of region coordination and managing the e-waste of the Oceania region.[28] SPREP uses Cleaner Pacific 2025 as a framework to guide the various governments in the region.[29] They also work with PacWaste (Pacific Hazardous Waste) to identify and resolve the different issues with waste management of the islands, which largely stem from the lack of government enforcement and knowledge on the matter.[30] They have currently proposed a mandatory product stewardship policy be put in place along with an advance recycling fee which would incentivize local and industrial recycling. They are also in the mindset that the islands should collaborate and share resources and experience to assist in the endeavor.

With the help from the NTCRS, though the situation has improved they have been vocal about the responsibilities of stakeholders in the situation and how they need to be more clearly defined. In addition to there being a differences in state and federal regulations, with only Southern Australia, Australian Capital Territory, and Victoria having banned e-waste landfill, it would be possible to make this apply the rest of the region if a federal decision was made. They have also advocated for reasonable access to collection points for waste, with there being only one collection point within a 100 km radius in some cases. It has been shown that the reason some residents do not recycle is because of their distance from a collection point. In addition, there have been few campaigns to recycle, with the company, Mobile Muster, a voluntary collection program managed by the Australian Mobile Telecommunication Association, aimed to collect phones before they went to a landfill and has been doing so since 1999. Upon further study, it was found that only 46% of the public was award of the program, which later increased to 74% in 2018, but this was after an investment of $45 million from the Australian Mobile Telecommunication Association.

Asia

[edit]

"Economic growth in Asia has increased in the past three decades and has heightened energy demand, resulting in rising greenhouse gas emissions and severe air pollution. To tackle these issues, fuel switching and the deployment of renewables are essential."[31] However, as countries continue to advance, it leads to more pollution as a result of increased energy consumption. In recent years, the biggest concern for Asia is its air pollution issues. Major Chinese cities such as Beijing have received the worst air quality rankings (Li et al., 2017). Seoul, the capital of South Korea, also suffers from air pollution (Kim et al., 2017). Currently, Indian cities such as Mumbai and Delhi are overtaking Chinese cities in the ranking of worst air quality. In 2019, 21 of the world's 30 cities with the worst air quality were in India."

The environmentally friendly trends are marketed with a different color association, using the color blue for clean air and clean water, as opposed to green in western cultures. Japanese- and Korean-built hybrid vehicles use the color blue instead of green all throughout the vehicle, and use the word "blue" indiscriminately.[32]


China

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According to Shen, Li, Wang, and Liao, the emission trading system that China had used for its environmentally friendly journey was implemented in certain districts and was successful in comparison to those which were used in test districts that were approved by the government.[33] This shows how China tried to effectively introduce new innovative systems to impact the environment. China implemented multiple ways to combat environmental problems even if they didn't succeed at first. It led to them implementing a more successful process which benefited the environment. Although China needs to implement policies like, "The “fee-to-tax” process should be accelerated, however, and the design and implementation of the environmental tax system should be improved. This would form a positive incentive mechanism in which a low level of pollution correlates with a low level of tax." By implementing policies like these companies have a higher incentive to not over pollute the environment and instead focus on creating an eco-friendlier environment for their workplaces. In doing so, it will lead to less pollution being emitted while there also being a cleaner environment. Companies would prefer to have lower taxes to lessen the costs they have to deal with, so it encourages them to avoid polluting the environment as much as possible.

International

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Energy Star is a program with a primary goal of increasing energy efficiency and indirectly decreasing greenhouse gas emissions.[34] Energy Star has different sections for different nations or areas, including the United States,[35] the European Union[36] and Australia.[37] The program, which was founded in the United States, also exists in Canada, Japan, New Zealand, and Taiwan.[38] Additionally, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 17 has a target to promote the development, transfer, dissemination, and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies to developing countries as part of the 2030 Agenda.[39]

See also

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References

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  5. ^ "Eco friendly production key to achieving sdgs".
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  15. ^ Brécard, Dorothée; Hlaimi, Boubaker; Lucas, Sterenn; Perraudeau, Yves; Salladarré, Frédéric (15 November 2009). "Determinants of demand for green products: An application to eco-label demand for fish in Europe". Ecological Economics. The DPSIR framework for Biodiversity Assessment. 69 (1): 115–125. Bibcode:2009EcoEc..69..115B. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.07.017. ISSN 0921-8009.
  16. ^ Miras Rodríguez, María del Mar; Escobar Pérez, Bernabé; Carrasco Gallego, Amalia (2015). "Are companies less environmentally-friendly due to the crisis? Evidence from Europe". hdl:11441/85190. ISSN 2182-8466. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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  19. ^ "About the Program". EcoLogo. Archived from the original on 27 May 2006. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  20. ^ "Environmental Choice (Canada)". Environment Canada. Archived from the original on 25 November 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  21. ^ Stiftung, Bertelsmann. "SGI 2017 | Mexico | Environmental Policies". www.sgi-network.org. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
  22. ^ "Overview of Regulatory Requirements - Labelling and MEPS". Energy Rating Label. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  23. ^ Arnaud Bizard; Brett Lee; Karen Puterrman. "AWARE and Environmental Labeling Programs: One Step Closer to a Sustainable Economy" (PDF). ME 589. Retrieved 10 July 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  24. ^ "Overview of how are star ratings calculated?". Energy Rating Label. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  25. ^ "The Energy Label". Energy Rating Label. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  26. ^ Van Yken, Jonovan; Boxall, Naomi J.; Cheng, Ka Yu; Nikoloski, Aleksandar N.; Moheimani, Navid R.; Kaksonen, Anna H. (August 2021). "E-Waste Recycling and Resource Recovery: A Review on Technologies, Barriers and Enablers with a Focus on Oceania". Metals. 11 (8): 1313. doi:10.3390/met11081313.
  27. ^ "Review of the Product Stewardship Act 2011" (PDF).
  28. ^ "About Us | Pacific Environment".
  29. ^ "Cleaner Pacific 2025. Pacific Regional Waste and Pollution Management Strategy" (PDF). un.org. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  30. ^ "What is Pacwaste? | Pacific Environment".
  31. ^ Arimura, Toshi H.; Sugino, Makoto (7 August 2020). "Energy-Related Environmental Policy and Its Impacts on Energy Use in Asia". Asian Economic Policy Review. 16 (1). Wiley: 44–61. doi:10.1111/aepr.12319. ISSN 1832-8105. S2CID 225416259.
  32. ^ "S.Korea unveils 'recharging road' for eco-friendly buses". phys.org. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
  33. ^ Ge, Wenjun; Yang, Derong; Chen, Weineng; Li, Sheng (7 February 2023). "Can Setting Up a Carbon Trading Mechanism Improve Urban Eco-Efficiency? Evidence from China". Sustainability. 15 (4). MDPI AG: 3014. doi:10.3390/su15043014. ISSN 2071-1050.
  34. ^ "About Energy Star". Energy Star. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  35. ^ "United States Energy Star Home Page". Energy Star. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  36. ^ "EU Energy Star Home Page". Energy Star. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  37. ^ "Australia Energy Star Home Page". Energy Star. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  38. ^ "Who's Working With ENERGY STAR? International Partners". Energy Star. Retrieved 3 February 2009.
  39. ^ "Goal 17 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs". sdgs.un.org. Retrieved 26 September 2020.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Recent advances include bioremediation, where microorganisms break down hazardous substances; thermal desorption, which uses heat to remove contaminants from soil and debris; advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) that degrade pollutants using oxidizing agents; and plasma arc technology, which converts waste into a non-toxic slag using extremely high temperatures.
These technologies enhance safety by reducing human exposure to toxins through automated processes and contained environments. They improve efficiency by accelerating decomposition or neutralization of hazardous materials, minimizing residual waste, and facilitating recycling or safe disposal.
Yes, advanced methods often result in lower emissions and reduced reliance on landfills. Techniques like bioremediation use natural processes that minimize environmental impact, while others like plasma arc technology reduce volume significantly and allow for energy recovery from waste.
Challenges include high initial costs for acquiring and maintaining new technology, technical complexity requiring specialized training for operators, regulatory compliance issues across different regions, and potential resistance from stakeholders accustomed to conventional methods.