Post Event Evaluation of Portable Toilet Placement Effectiveness

Post Event Evaluation of Portable Toilet Placement Effectiveness

Factors Influencing Portable Toilet Requirements

Evaluating the effectiveness of portable toilet placement at post-event scenarios is a critical aspect of ensuring attendee satisfaction and operational efficiency. The methodology for this evaluation should be comprehensive, data-driven, and adaptable to various event contexts.


Firstly, it is essential to establish clear objectives for the evaluation. These objectives might include assessing the adequacy of toilet numbers, evaluating the convenience of their locations, and understanding the cleanliness and maintenance standards. Emergency restroom rentals become crucial during Virginia's hurricane season when permanent facilities may be compromised fancy porta potty rental Tent. By setting these goals, we can ensure that the evaluation process is focused and purposeful.


Data collection is the next pivotal step. This can be achieved through a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. Surveys and feedback forms distributed to attendees can provide valuable insights into their experiences and perceptions. Additionally, observational data collected by event staff can offer a more objective view of usage patterns and potential issues.


To ensure accuracy, the evaluation should incorporate both real-time data collection during the event and retrospective analysis post-event. Real-time data can help identify immediate issues, while retrospective analysis allows for a more thorough examination of overall effectiveness.


Another crucial component is the use of technology. Portable toilets equipped with sensors can track usage rates and identify peak times, providing data that can be invaluable for future planning. Additionally, mobile apps or online platforms can streamline the feedback process, making it easier for attendees to share their experiences.


Finally, the evaluation should conclude with a detailed report that summarizes findings, highlights areas for improvement, and offers actionable recommendations. This report should be shared with all relevant stakeholders, including event organizers, venue managers, and sanitation service providers, to facilitate informed decision-making.


In summary, a robust methodology for evaluating the effectiveness of portable toilet placement involves setting clear objectives, employing a mix of data collection methods, leveraging technology, and producing a comprehensive report. By following these steps, event organizers can enhance attendee satisfaction and improve operational efficiency.

Okay, so were talking about figuring out how well we placed those portable toilets after an event, right? Not exactly glamorous work, but someones gotta do it, and doing it well means fewer complaints and happier attendees next time. So, how do we actually figure out if we nailed the placement or totally whiffed it? It all boils down to smart data collection and some insightful analysis.


First, lets talk about getting the data. The most obvious, and probably most important, is good old-fashioned counting. We need to know how many people used the toilets. That means either hiring someone to stand there (not ideal, I know) or, preferably, using some kind of counter. There are automated counters that use infrared beams or pressure sensors, and those can give you a pretty accurate picture of usage over time. This data is gold because it tells you if the toilets were actually being used at the locations you picked.


Then theres the human element. Surveys are crucial. Short, sweet, and to the point. Think about asking things like: "Were the toilets easy to find?" "Were there enough toilets available when you needed them?" "Were they clean and well-stocked?" A simple rating scale (like 1 to 5 stars) can make the data easy to analyze. You can distribute these surveys online, via QR codes at the event, or even have people handing them out. Dont forget to offer a small incentive for completing the survey to boost participation.


Another great source of feedback is social media. People love to complain online, but sometimes those complaints are actually valuable insights. Scour platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram for mentions of the event and anything related to the portable toilets. Sentiment analysis tools can even help you automatically categorize the comments as positive, negative, or neutral.


Okay, so now youve got all this data. What do you do with it? Thats where the analysis comes in. Start by looking for patterns. Did certain toilet locations have significantly higher usage than others? Were there specific times of day when the toilets were overwhelmed? Did the survey responses reveal any common complaints?


Compare the data with your initial assumptions. Did you think a certain area would be high-traffic, and it turned out to be a ghost town? Understanding why your assumptions were wrong is key to improving future placements.


Also, dont forget to consider the event layout. Were the toilets easily accessible from all areas? Were there any obstacles (like long lines for food or merchandise) that made it difficult for people to reach them? Map the toilet locations and overlay the usage data to visualize the effectiveness of the placement.


Finally, document everything. Create a report that summarizes your findings, highlights the successes and failures, and makes concrete recommendations for future events. This report will become a valuable resource for planning teams, helping them make informed decisions about portable toilet placement and ensuring a better experience for everyone. Ultimately, its about learning from each event and continuously improving the process.

Duration of the Event and Toilet Needs

Okay, lets talk about portable toilets. I know, not the most glamorous subject, but hear me out. Were focusing on after the event, when the dust has settled, the musics faded, and someones gotta figure out if those little blue (or green, or beige...) boxes actually did their job. Specifically, were diving into how where we put em affects how happy people were and, lets be honest, how clean things stayed.


Think about it. Youre at a festival, needing to, well, go. If the nearest portable toilet is a mile away, nestled behind the beer tent and a mountain of trash, youre already starting off on the wrong foot. User satisfaction plummets. People start making desperate choices. And thats where the "hygiene" part comes in. Bad placement leads to longer lines, which leads to impatient people, which leads to, shall we say, creative solutions to restroom needs. Were talking about increased potential for public urination, general messiness, and a whole lot of unhappy campers.


The flip side is that thoughtful placement can be a game changer. Strategically locating toilets near high-traffic areas like food vendors, stages, and entrances makes a huge difference. Ensuring theyre easily accessible, well-lit (no one wants a surprise encounter with something they cant see!), and regularly serviced improves the overall experience. Happy users are more likely to use the facilities properly and keep them relatively clean.


The post-event evaluation, then, isnt just about counting how many toilets were used. Its about gathering feedback: Were they easy to find? Were the lines reasonable? Did people feel safe and comfortable using them? Combining this qualitative data with observations about the cleanliness of the surrounding areas gives us a real picture of placement effectiveness. Did we create a good experience, or a potential biohazard zone?


Ultimately, effective portable toilet placement isnt just about providing a necessary service; its about showing respect for the attendees and contributing to the overall success (and cleanliness!) of the event. Its about understanding that even the most unglamorous aspects of event planning can have a significant impact on user satisfaction and, yes, public hygiene. So, next time youre at an event, take a look around. The strategic placement (or lack thereof) of those portable toilets speaks volumes about the event organizers attention to detail and their commitment to a positive experience for everyone.

Duration of the Event and Toilet Needs

Special Considerations for Different Event Types

Recommendations for Future Event Planning: Post Event Evaluation of Portable Toilet Placement Effectiveness


Introduction


As events continue to grow in size and complexity, ensuring the comfort and convenience of attendees becomes increasingly important. One crucial aspect of event planning is the placement of portable toilets. A post-event evaluation of portable toilet placement effectiveness can provide valuable insights for future events. This essay will discuss recommendations for future event planning based on the evaluation of portable toilet placement effectiveness.



  1. Analyze Event Demographics


Understanding the demographics of your attendees is essential in determining the number and placement of portable toilets. Factors such as age, gender, and mobility should be taken into account when planning the layout of the event space. For instance, if the event caters to a predominantly elderly audience, it may be necessary to place portable toilets at more frequent intervals to accommodate their needs.



  1. Conduct a Site Survey


Before finalizing the event layout, conduct a thorough site survey to identify potential challenges and opportunities for portable toilet placement. This includes assessing the terrain, identifying natural barriers, and considering the proximity to existing facilities. By taking these factors into account, you can create a more efficient and user-friendly layout for attendees.



  1. Implement a Flexible Layout


A flexible layout allows for adjustments to be made during the event if necessary. This may involve placing portable toilets in temporary locations or adding additional units as demand increases. By being prepared to adapt the layout as needed, you can ensure that attendees have access to the facilities they need throughout the event.



  1. Train Staff on Portable Toilet Management


Proper management of portable toilets is essential for maintaining cleanliness and ensuring a positive experience for attendees. Train staff on best practices for cleaning, restocking, and monitoring the usage of portable toilets. This includes providing clear instructions on waste disposal and encouraging staff to address any issues promptly.



  1. Gather Feedback and Continuously Improve


After the event, gather feedback from attendees and staff regarding the effectiveness of portable toilet placement. This can be done through surveys, interviews, or informal conversations. Use this feedback to identify areas for improvement and implement changes for future events. By continuously refining your approach to portable toilet placement, you can create a more enjoyable and comfortable experience for all attendees.


Conclusion


A post-event evaluation of portable toilet placement effectiveness can provide valuable insights for future event planning. By analyzing event demographics, conducting a site survey, implementing a flexible layout, training staff on portable toilet management, and gathering feedback, you can create a more efficient and user-friendly layout for attendees. This will ultimately contribute to a more successful and enjoyable event experience.

A portable urine-diverting dry toilet, marketed in Haiti by Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods under the name "EkoLakay"

A portable or mobile toilet (colloquial terms: thunderbox, porta-john, porta-potty or porta-loo) is any type of toilet that can be moved around, some by one person, some by mechanical equipment such as a truck and crane. Most types do not require any pre-existing services or infrastructure, such as sewerage, and are completely self-contained. The portable toilet is used in a variety of situations, for example in urban slums of developing countries, at festivals, for camping, on boats, on construction sites, and at film locations and large outdoor gatherings where there are no other facilities. Most portable toilets are unisex single units with privacy ensured by a simple lock on the door. Some portable toilets are small molded plastic or fiberglass portable rooms with a lockable door and a receptacle to catch the human excreta in a container.

A portable toilet is not connected to a hole in the ground (like a pit latrine), nor to a septic tank, nor is it plumbed into a municipal system leading to a sewage treatment plant. The chemical toilet is probably the most well-known type of portable toilet, but other types also exist, such as urine-diversion dehydration toilets, composting toilets, container-based toilets, bucket toilets, freezing toilets and incineration toilets. A bucket toilet is a very simple type of portable toilet.

Types

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A line of blue plastic portable chemical toilets

Chemical toilets

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Plastic-moulded outdoor cubicle, commonly used for chemical toilets at building sites and festivals

A chemical toilet collects human waste in a holding tank and uses chemicals to minimize the odors. Most portable toilets use chemicals in this way and therefore are considered chemical toilets. The chemicals may either mask the odor or contain biocides that hinder odor-causing bacteria from multiplying, keeping the smell to a minimum.[1]

Enclosed portable toilets

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Enclosed portable chemical toilets are widely used for crowds at festivals, and for worksites without permanent toilets, such as early stages of construction and remote worksites.

On planes and trains, some toilets are chemical toilets, and others are vacuum toilets.

Portable camping toilets

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Various boat toilets, including the most basic models on the bottom right

A portable camping toilet has a seat and a small waste tank. Adding a packet of chemicals to the waste tank reduces odors and bacteria, until the waste can be dumped at an appropriate facility. They are used in camping, travel trailers, caravans, and camper vans. They may also be used on small boats which lack a built-in marine toilet.

WAG bags

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Waste aggregation and gelling (WAG) bags have a gel to immobilize liquid waste and surround solid waste in a plastic bag, which is then put in the trash. They are used in the US Army[2] and in wilderness.[3] They can be used to line a bucket, with a toilet-seat lid, and are required for Utah river trips.[4]

Urine-diversion dehydration toilets

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Portable urine-diversion dehydration toilets are self-contained dry toilets sometimes referred to as "mobile" or "stand-alone" units. They are identifiable by their one-piece molded plastic shells or, in the case of DIY versions, simple plywood box construction. Most users of self-contained UDDTs rely upon a collection agency or a post-treatment process to ensure pathogen reduction. This post-treatment may consist of long-term storage or addition to an existing or purpose-built compost pile or some combination thereof. The necessity of a post-treatment step hinges upon the frequency and volume of use. For instances of infrequent or very modest seasonal use, a post-treatment phase might be deemed unnecessary due to the lower accumulation of waste, simplifying the overall disposal process.

Container-based sanitation refers to a collection system which regularly replaces full containers with empty containers, and disposes of the waste.

Commode chair

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A commode chair (a chair enclosing a chamber pot) is a basic portable toilet that is used next to a bed (bedside commode) for people with limited mobility. Before indoor toilets, it was used world-wide as an indoor alternative to an outhouse.

History

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A portable toilet in a British Royal Air Force WWII plane

The close stool, built as an article of furniture, is one of the earliest forms of portable toilet. They can still be seen in historic house museums such as Sir George-Étienne Cartier National Historic Site in Old Montreal, Canada. The velvet upholstered close stool used by William III is on display at Hampton Court Palace; see Groom of the Stool.

Early versions of the "Elsan chemical closet" ("closet" meaning a small room, see water closet, WC, and earth closet) were sold at Army & Navy Stores. Their use in World War II bomber aircraft[5] is described at some length by the Bomber Command Museum of Canada; in brief, they were not popular with either the flying crew or the ground crew.[6]

African-Americans living under Jim Crow laws (i.e. before the Civil Rights Act of 1964) faced severe challenges. Public toilets were segregated by race, and many restaurants and gas stations refused to serve black people, so some travellers carried a portable toilet in the trunk of their car.[7]

Since 1974, Grand Canyon guides rafting on the Colorado River have used ammo boxes as portable toilets, typically with a removable toilet seat, according to the Museum of Northern Arizona in Flagstaff, Arizona.[8][9]

Society and culture

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19th century "thunderbox" portable toilet

A slang term, now dated or historic, is a "thunder-box" (Oxford English Dictionary: "a portable commode; by extension, any lavatory"). The term was used particularly in British India; travel writer Stephen McClarence called it "a crude sort of colonial lavatory".[10] One features to comic effect in Evelyn Waugh's novel Men at Arms:[11]

"If you must know, it's my thunderbox." ... He...dragged out the treasure, a brass-bound, oak cube... On the inside of the lid was a plaque bearing the embossed title Connolly's Chemical Closet.

See also

[edit]
  • Accessible toilet
  • Dignified Mobile Toilets, a mobile public toilet system from Nigeria
  • Sanitation
  • Telescopic toilet

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Kauffman, Kenneth (November 1, 2017). "11 Fascinating Facts About Portable Toilets". Nisly Brothers. Archived from the original on October 31, 2020. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
  2. ^ McCann, Christina (2007-08-14). "Soldiers, environment love WAG bag". Defense Visual Information Distribution Service (DVIDS). Retrieved 2025-02-05.
  3. ^ Cecco, Leyland (2023-09-15). "When nature calls: Canadian wilderness area offers poop bags to fix fecal furore". The Guardian. Retrieved 2025-02-05.
  4. ^ Fields, Melissa; P.m, 2021 at 3:00 (2021-08-11). "Coming to terms with the poop problem in Utah's outdoors". www.ksl.com. Retrieved 2025-02-05.cite web: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 13 June 2016.
  6. ^ Wright, Ken (2010). "And When Nature Calls". Bomber Command Museum of Canada. Archived from the original on December 10, 2020. Retrieved May 4, 2021.
  7. ^ Sugrue, Thomas J. "Driving While Black: The Car and Race Relations in Modern America". Automobile in American Life and Society. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on December 16, 2017. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
  8. ^ "A History of the Groover". rowadventures.com. 8 July 2021. Retrieved 2023-12-27.
  9. ^ "Our History". swca.com. 22 June 2016. Retrieved 2023-12-17.
  10. ^ Patterson, Steven (2009). The Cult of Imperial Honor in British India. Springer Publishing. p. 10.
  11. ^ Ayto, John (1998). The Oxford Dictionary of Slang. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-19-280104-X.
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A soap dispenser is a device that, when manipulated or triggered appropriately, dispenses soap (usually in small, single-use quantities). Soap dispensers typically dispense liquid soap or foam soap. They can be automatic or manually operated by a handle and are often found in public toilets or private bathrooms.

Manual

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The design of a manual soap dispenser is generally determined by whether the soap comes in liquid, powder or foam form.

Liquid soap

[edit]

When soap is dispensed in liquid form, it is generally in a squeeze bottle or pump. The most popular soap dispensers of this type are plastic pump bottles, many of which are disposable.

William Quick patented liquid soap on August 22, 1865. Minnetonka Corporation introduced the first modern liquid soap in 1980 and bought up the entire supply of plastic pumps used in their dispensers to delay competition entering the market.[1]

Parts

[edit]
  • Actuator – This is the top of the pump from which is pressed down to get the liquid out
  • Closure – Closure is the bottle that is fastened to the bottle's neck. it has a smooth or ribbed surface
  • Outer gasket – Made up of plastic or rubber, it is fit inside the closure and prevents leakage
  • Housing – The main pump that keeps the other components in the right place and sends liquid to the actuator from the dip tube
  • Dip tube – This is the visible tube that carries liquid from the bottom of the bottle up to the housing
  • Interior components – A spring, ball, piston or stem that helps move the liquid to the actuator

Operation

[edit]

The handwash bottle acts much like an air suction device that draws liquid upwards to the user’s hands against the force of gravity. When the user presses down the actuator, the piston compresses the spring and upward air pressure pulls the ball upward, along with the liquid product into the dip tube and then reaches the housing. When the user releases the actuator, the spring returns the piston and actuator to the normal position and the ball returns to its earlier position to stop the backflow of the liquid back to the bottle. This process is called ‘priming' and is only used when the handwash is put in the bottle.

When the user presses the bottle again, the liquid in the housing is drawn from there and is released out of the actuator. The housing is again filled up with the handwash from the bottle, and the process goes on.

Dry soap

[edit]
A vertical stainless steel tube, mounted on a wall, with a crank handle on the side at the bottom, next to the hopper-like horizontal opening from which the grated soap will fall
A soap mill in a public washroom.
A moulded bulge proturding from the underside of a mounled plastic surface; at the base of the bulge, a short wide hollow black plastic cylinder with three narrow, outward-tapering radial spokes. Inside the cylinder, two black crossbars and a cotter pin hold the black plastic part on; behind them, a grater with spiral blades scrapes across the square surface of a block of solid soap.
A train-washroom built-in soap mill from below. When the black spokes are rotated with one finger, the spiral blades rotate against the soap bar visible behind them and flakes of soap fall out the bottom of the device into the other hand.

Some soap dispensers grate, plane[2] or grind solid soap bars to flakes or powder as they are dispensed. About 40 grams (1.4 oz) fresh weight of soap is equivalent to 1 liter (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 U.S. gal) of liquid soap, providing soap for up to 400 handwashings.

Soap mills are common in public washrooms in Germany.[3] Soap graters made specifically for home use[4][2] can be wall-mounted or free-standing (like a pepper grinder) and waterproof for use in a shower.[5][6] Some graters take specially dimensioned soap bars, others will take a range of ordinary soap bar sizes.[3][2]

Dispensers of pre-powdered soaps, such as borax, often take the form of a metal box with a weighted lever; when the lever is pressed, a handful of soap is released. Ground soap is also used to wash laundry.[7]

Foam soap

[edit]

Foam soap dispensers have dual foam pumps that when used, move both air and soap, injecting both together through small openings to create a lather. They can be found in both manual and automatic varieties.

Manual dispensers of foam soap often consist of a large button that squeezes the foam out of a tube. Many liquid soap dispensers operate in this way as well. A few dispensers operate with a lever that pulls forward and squeezes the soap out.

The majority of manual foam soap dispensers have the soap in a bladder in the dispenser in liquid form, as the pump is pressed the liquid soap is pushed through a small foaming nozzle which foams the soap.

Automatic

[edit]
Automatic soap dispenser

An automatic soap dispenser is specifically a hands-free dispenser of liquid or foam soap, and generally can be used for other liquids such as hand sanitizers, shampoos or hand lotions. They are often battery-powered-powered. Hands-free dispensers for water and soap/hand sanitizer have particular virtues for operating theatres and treatment rooms.

Mechanism

[edit]

The touch-free design dispenses the liquid when a sensor detects motion under the nozzle. The electronic components of an automatic soap dispenser allow for a timing device or signal (sound, lights, etc.) which can indicate to the user whether they have washed their hands for the correct amount of time or not.

See also

[edit]
  • Foam pump
  • Hand washing
  • Soapdish

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "The History of Soap and Detergent". Archived from the original on July 14, 2012.
  2. ^ a b c "Trockenseifenspender SoapPlaner". SoapPlaner (in German).
  3. ^ a b Morwood, Peter. "Trockenseifenspender (dry soap dispenser)".
  4. ^ John Brownlee (12 January 2011). "Bar soap dispenser will double as cheese grater in a pinch". Geek.com.
  5. ^ "Soap Grater Looks Practical". Cool Things. January 11, 2011.
  6. ^ "Soap Flakes - Soap Bar Dispensers". The Green Head - Finds Cool New Stuff!.
  7. ^ "How To Make Classic DIY Laundry Detergent With NO Grating!". Farming My Backyard. 10 April 2018.

 

An Ab anbar (water reservoir) with double domes and windcatchers (openings near the top of the towers) in the central desert city of Naeen, Iran. Windcatchers are a form of natural ventilation.[1]

Ventilation is the intentional introduction of outdoor air into a space. Ventilation is mainly used to control indoor air quality by diluting and displacing indoor effluents and pollutants. It can also be used to control indoor temperature, humidity, and air motion to benefit thermal comfort, satisfaction with other aspects of the indoor environment, or other objectives.

The intentional introduction of outdoor air is usually categorized as either mechanical ventilation, natural ventilation, or mixed-mode ventilation.[2]

  • Mechanical ventilation is the intentional fan-driven flow of outdoor air into and/or out from a building. Mechanical ventilation systems may include supply fans (which push outdoor air into a building), exhaust[3] fans (which draw air out of a building and thereby cause equal ventilation flow into a building), or a combination of both (called balanced ventilation if it neither pressurizes nor depressurizes the inside air,[3] or only slightly depressurizes it). Mechanical ventilation is often provided by equipment that is also used to heat and cool a space.
  • Natural ventilation is the intentional passive flow of outdoor air into a building through planned openings (such as louvers, doors, and windows). Natural ventilation does not require mechanical systems to move outdoor air. Instead, it relies entirely on passive physical phenomena, such as wind pressure, or the stack effect. Natural ventilation openings may be fixed, or adjustable. Adjustable openings may be controlled automatically (automated), owned by occupants (operable), or a combination of both. Cross ventilation is a phenomenon of natural ventilation.
  • Mixed-mode ventilation systems use both mechanical and natural processes. The mechanical and natural components may be used at the same time, at different times of day, or in different seasons of the year.[4] Since natural ventilation flow depends on environmental conditions, it may not always provide an appropriate amount of ventilation. In this case, mechanical systems may be used to supplement or regulate the naturally driven flow.

Ventilation is typically described as separate from infiltration.

  • Infiltration is the circumstantial flow of air from outdoors to indoors through leaks (unplanned openings) in a building envelope. When a building design relies on infiltration to maintain indoor air quality, this flow has been referred to as adventitious ventilation.[5]

The design of buildings that promote occupant health and well-being requires a clear understanding of the ways that ventilation airflow interacts with, dilutes, displaces, or introduces pollutants within the occupied space. Although ventilation is an integral component of maintaining good indoor air quality, it may not be satisfactory alone.[6] A clear understanding of both indoor and outdoor air quality parameters is needed to improve the performance of ventilation in terms of occupant health and energy.[7] In scenarios where outdoor pollution would deteriorate indoor air quality, other treatment devices such as filtration may also be necessary.[8] In kitchen ventilation systems, or for laboratory fume hoods, the design of effective effluent capture can be more important than the bulk amount of ventilation in a space. More generally, the way that an air distribution system causes ventilation to flow into and out of a space impacts the ability of a particular ventilation rate to remove internally generated pollutants. The ability of a system to reduce pollution in space is described as its "ventilation effectiveness". However, the overall impacts of ventilation on indoor air quality can depend on more complex factors such as the sources of pollution, and the ways that activities and airflow interact to affect occupant exposure.

An array of factors related to the design and operation of ventilation systems are regulated by various codes and standards. Standards dealing with the design and operation of ventilation systems to achieve acceptable indoor air quality include the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standards 62.1 and 62.2, the International Residential Code, the International Mechanical Code, and the United Kingdom Building Regulations Part F. Other standards that focus on energy conservation also impact the design and operation of ventilation systems, including ASHRAE Standard 90.1, and the International Energy Conservation Code.

When indoor and outdoor conditions are favorable, increasing ventilation beyond the minimum required for indoor air quality can significantly improve both indoor air quality and thermal comfort through ventilative cooling, which also helps reduce the energy demand of buildings.[9][10] During these times, higher ventilation rates, achieved through passive or mechanical means (air-side economizer, ventilative pre-cooling), can be particularly beneficial for enhancing people's physical health.[11] Conversely, when conditions are less favorable, maintaining or improving indoor air quality through ventilation may require increased use of mechanical heating or cooling, leading to higher energy consumption.

Ventilation should be considered for its relationship to "venting" for appliances and combustion equipment such as water heaters, furnaces, boilers, and wood stoves. Most importantly, building ventilation design must be careful to avoid the backdraft of combustion products from "naturally vented" appliances into the occupied space. This issue is of greater importance for buildings with more air-tight envelopes. To avoid the hazard, many modern combustion appliances utilize "direct venting" which draws combustion air directly from outdoors, instead of from the indoor environment.

Design of air flow in rooms

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The air in a room can be supplied and removed in several ways, for example via ceiling ventilation, cross ventilation, floor ventilation or displacement ventilation.[citation needed]

Furthermore, the air can be circulated in the room using vortexes which can be initiated in various ways:

Ventilation rates for indoor air quality

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The ventilation rate, for commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) buildings, is normally expressed by the volumetric flow rate of outdoor air, introduced to the building. The typical units used are cubic feet per minute (CFM) in the imperial system, or liters per second (L/s) in the metric system (even though cubic meter per second is the preferred unit for volumetric flow rate in the SI system of units). The ventilation rate can also be expressed on a per person or per unit floor area basis, such as CFM/p or CFM/ft², or as air changes per hour (ACH).

Standards for residential buildings

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For residential buildings, which mostly rely on infiltration for meeting their ventilation needs, a common ventilation rate measure is the air change rate (or air changes per hour): the hourly ventilation rate divided by the volume of the space (I or ACH; units of 1/h). During the winter, ACH may range from 0.50 to 0.41 in a tightly air-sealed house to 1.11 to 1.47 in a loosely air-sealed house.[12]

ASHRAE now recommends ventilation rates dependent upon floor area, as a revision to the 62-2001 standard, in which the minimum ACH was 0.35, but no less than 15 CFM/person (7.1 L/s/person). As of 2003, the standard has been changed to 3 CFM/100 sq. ft. (15 L/s/100 sq. m.) plus 7.5 CFM/person (3.5 L/s/person).[13]

Standards for commercial buildings

[edit]

Ventilation rate procedure

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Ventilation Rate Procedure is rate based on standard and prescribes the rate at which ventilation air must be delivered to space and various means to the condition that air.[14] Air quality is assessed (through CO2 measurement) and ventilation rates are mathematically derived using constants.Indoor Air Quality Procedure uses one or more guidelines for the specification of acceptable concentrations of certain contaminants in indoor air but does not prescribe ventilation rates or air treatment methods.[14] This addresses both quantitative and subjective evaluations and is based on the Ventilation Rate Procedure. It also accounts for potential contaminants that may have no measured limits, or for which no limits are not set (such as formaldehyde off-gassing from carpet and furniture).

Natural ventilation

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Natural ventilation harnesses naturally available forces to supply and remove air in an enclosed space. Poor ventilation in rooms is identified to significantly increase the localized moldy smell in specific places of the room including room corners.[11] There are three types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind-driven ventilation, pressure-driven flows, and stack ventilation.[15] The pressures generated by 'the stack effect' rely upon the buoyancy of heated or rising air. Wind-driven ventilation relies upon the force of the prevailing wind to pull and push air through the enclosed space as well as through breaches in the building's envelope.

Almost all historic buildings were ventilated naturally.[16] The technique was generally abandoned in larger US buildings during the late 20th century as the use of air conditioning became more widespread. However, with the advent of advanced Building Performance Simulation (BPS) software, improved Building Automation Systems (BAS), Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) design requirements, and improved window manufacturing techniques; natural ventilation has made a resurgence in commercial buildings both globally and throughout the US.[17]

The benefits of natural ventilation include:

  • Improved indoor air quality (IAQ)
  • Energy savings
  • Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
  • Occupant control
  • Reduction in occupant illness associated with sick building syndrome
  • Increased worker productivity

Techniques and architectural features used to ventilate buildings and structures naturally include, but are not limited to:

  • Operable windows
  • Clerestory windows and vented skylights
  • Lev/convection doors
  • Night purge ventilation
  • Building orientation
  • Wind capture façades

Airborne diseases

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Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as tuberculosis, the common cold, influenza, meningitis or COVID-19.[18] Opening doors and windows are good ways to maximize natural ventilation, which would make the risk of airborne contagion much lower than with costly and maintenance-requiring mechanical systems. Old-fashioned clinical areas with high ceilings and large windows provide the greatest protection. Natural ventilation costs little and is maintenance-free, and is particularly suited to limited-resource settings and tropical climates, where the burden of TB and institutional TB transmission is highest. In settings where respiratory isolation is difficult and climate permits, windows and doors should be opened to reduce the risk of airborne contagion. Natural ventilation requires little maintenance and is inexpensive.[19]

Natural ventilation is not practical in much of the infrastructure because of climate. This means that the facilities need to have effective mechanical ventilation systems and or use Ceiling Level UV or FAR UV ventilation systems.

Ventilation is measured in terms of air changes per hour (ACH). As of 2023, the CDC recommends that all spaces have a minimum of 5 ACH.[20] For hospital rooms with airborne contagions the CDC recommends a minimum of 12 ACH.[21] Challenges in facility ventilation are public unawareness,[22][23] ineffective government oversight, poor building codes that are based on comfort levels, poor system operations, poor maintenance, and lack of transparency.[24]

Pressure, both political and economic, to improve energy conservation has led to decreased ventilation rates. Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning rates have dropped since the energy crisis in the 1970s and the banning of cigarette smoke in the 1980s and 1990s.[25][26][better source needed]

Mechanical ventilation

[edit]
An axial belt-drive exhaust fan serving an underground car park. This exhaust fan's operation is interlocked with the concentration of contaminants emitted by internal combustion engines.

Mechanical ventilation of buildings and structures can be achieved by the use of the following techniques:

  • Whole-house ventilation
  • Mixing ventilation
  • Displacement ventilation
  • Dedicated subaerial air supply

Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV)

[edit]

Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV, also known as Demand Control Ventilation) makes it possible to maintain air quality while conserving energy.[27][28] ASHRAE has determined that "It is consistent with the ventilation rate procedure that demand control be permitted for use to reduce the total outdoor air supply during periods of less occupancy."[29] In a DCV system, CO2 sensors control the amount of ventilation.[30][31] During peak occupancy, CO2 levels rise, and the system adjusts to deliver the same amount of outdoor air as would be used by the ventilation-rate procedure.[32] However, when spaces are less occupied, CO2 levels reduce, and the system reduces ventilation to conserves energy. DCV is a well-established practice,[33] and is required in high occupancy spaces by building energy standards such as ASHRAE 90.1.[34]

Personalized ventilation

[edit]

Personalized ventilation is an air distribution strategy that allows individuals to control the amount of ventilation received. The approach delivers fresh air more directly to the breathing zone and aims to improve the air quality of inhaled air. Personalized ventilation provides much higher ventilation effectiveness than conventional mixing ventilation systems by displacing pollution from the breathing zone with far less air volume. Beyond improved air quality benefits, the strategy can also improve occupants' thermal comfort, perceived air quality, and overall satisfaction with the indoor environment. Individuals' preferences for temperature and air movement are not equal, and so traditional approaches to homogeneous environmental control have failed to achieve high occupant satisfaction. Techniques such as personalized ventilation facilitate control of a more diverse thermal environment that can improve thermal satisfaction for most occupants.

Local exhaust ventilation

[edit]

Local exhaust ventilation addresses the issue of avoiding the contamination of indoor air by specific high-emission sources by capturing airborne contaminants before they are spread into the environment. This can include water vapor control, lavatory effluent control, solvent vapors from industrial processes, and dust from wood- and metal-working machinery. Air can be exhausted through pressurized hoods or the use of fans and pressurizing a specific area.[35]
A local exhaust system is composed of five basic parts:

  1. A hood that captures the contaminant at its source
  2. Ducts for transporting the air
  3. An air-cleaning device that removes/minimizes the contaminant
  4. A fan that moves the air through the system
  5. An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged[35]

In the UK, the use of LEV systems has regulations set out by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) which are referred to as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (CoSHH). Under CoSHH, legislation is set to protect users of LEV systems by ensuring that all equipment is tested at least every fourteen months to ensure the LEV systems are performing adequately. All parts of the system must be visually inspected and thoroughly tested and where any parts are found to be defective, the inspector must issue a red label to identify the defective part and the issue.

The owner of the LEV system must then have the defective parts repaired or replaced before the system can be used.

Smart ventilation

[edit]

Smart ventilation is a process of continually adjusting the ventilation system in time, and optionally by location, to provide the desired IAQ benefits while minimizing energy consumption, utility bills, and other non-IAQ costs (such as thermal discomfort or noise). A smart ventilation system adjusts ventilation rates in time or by location in a building to be responsive to one or more of the following: occupancy, outdoor thermal and air quality conditions, electricity grid needs, direct sensing of contaminants, operation of other air moving and air cleaning systems. In addition, smart ventilation systems can provide information to building owners, occupants, and managers on operational energy consumption and indoor air quality as well as a signal when systems need maintenance or repair. Being responsive to occupancy means that a smart ventilation system can adjust ventilation depending on demand such as reducing ventilation if the building is unoccupied. Smart ventilation can time-shift ventilation to periods when a) indoor-outdoor temperature differences are smaller (and away from peak outdoor temperatures and humidity), b) when indoor-outdoor temperatures are appropriate for ventilative cooling, or c) when outdoor air quality is acceptable. Being responsive to electricity grid needs means providing flexibility to electricity demand (including direct signals from utilities) and integration with electric grid control strategies. Smart ventilation systems can have sensors to detect airflow, systems pressures, or fan energy use in such a way that systems failures can be detected and repaired, as well as when system components need maintenance, such as filter replacement.[36]

Ventilation and combustion

[edit]

Combustion (in a fireplace, gas heater, candle, oil lamp, etc.) consumes oxygen while producing carbon dioxide and other unhealthy gases and smoke, requiring ventilation air. An open chimney promotes infiltration (i.e. natural ventilation) because of the negative pressure change induced by the buoyant, warmer air leaving through the chimney. The warm air is typically replaced by heavier, cold air.

Ventilation in a structure is also needed for removing water vapor produced by respiration, burning, and cooking, and for removing odors. If water vapor is permitted to accumulate, it may damage the structure, insulation, or finishes. [citation needed] When operating, an air conditioner usually removes excess moisture from the air. A dehumidifier may also be appropriate for removing airborne moisture.

Calculation for acceptable ventilation rate

[edit]

Ventilation guidelines are based on the minimum ventilation rate required to maintain acceptable levels of effluents. Carbon dioxide is used as a reference point, as it is the gas of highest emission at a relatively constant value of 0.005 L/s. The mass balance equation is:

Q = G/ (Ci − Ca)

  • Q = ventilation rate (L/s)
  • G = CO2 generation rate
  • Ci = acceptable indoor CO2 concentration
  • Ca = ambient CO2 concentration[37]

Smoking and ventilation

[edit]

ASHRAE standard 62 states that air removed from an area with environmental tobacco smoke shall not be recirculated into ETS-free air. A space with ETS requires more ventilation to achieve similar perceived air quality to that of a non-smoking environment.

The amount of ventilation in an ETS area is equal to the amount of an ETS-free area plus the amount V, where:

V = DSD × VA × A/60E

  • V = recommended extra flow rate in CFM (L/s)
  • DSD = design smoking density (estimated number of cigarettes smoked per hour per unit area)
  • VA = volume of ventilation air per cigarette for the room being designed (ft3/cig)
  • E = contaminant removal effectiveness[38]

History

[edit]
This ancient Roman house uses a variety of passive cooling and passive ventilation techniques. Heavy masonry walls, small exterior windows, and a narrow walled garden oriented N-S shade the house, preventing heat gain. The house opens onto a central atrium with an impluvium (open to the sky); the evaporative cooling of the water causes a cross-draft from atrium to garden.

Primitive ventilation systems were found at the Pločnik archeological site (belonging to the Vinča culture) in Serbia and were built into early copper smelting furnaces. The furnace, built on the outside of the workshop, featured earthen pipe-like air vents with hundreds of tiny holes in them and a prototype chimney to ensure air goes into the furnace to feed the fire and smoke comes out safely.[39]

Passive ventilation and passive cooling systems were widely written about around the Mediterranean by Classical times. Both sources of heat and sources of cooling (such as fountains and subterranean heat reservoirs) were used to drive air circulation, and buildings were designed to encourage or exclude drafts, according to climate and function. Public bathhouses were often particularly sophisticated in their heating and cooling. Icehouses are some millennia old, and were part of a well-developed ice industry by classical times.

The development of forced ventilation was spurred by the common belief in the late 18th and early 19th century in the miasma theory of disease, where stagnant 'airs' were thought to spread illness. An early method of ventilation was the use of a ventilating fire near an air vent which would forcibly cause the air in the building to circulate. English engineer John Theophilus Desaguliers provided an early example of this when he installed ventilating fires in the air tubes on the roof of the House of Commons. Starting with the Covent Garden Theatre, gas burning chandeliers on the ceiling were often specially designed to perform a ventilating role.

Mechanical systems

[edit]
The Central Tower of the Palace of Westminster. This octagonal spire was for ventilation purposes, in the more complex system imposed by Reid on Barry, in which it was to draw air out of the Palace. The design was for the aesthetic disguise of its function.[40][41]

A more sophisticated system involving the use of mechanical equipment to circulate the air was developed in the mid-19th century. A basic system of bellows was put in place to ventilate Newgate Prison and outlying buildings, by the engineer Stephen Hales in the mid-1700s. The problem with these early devices was that they required constant human labor to operate. David Boswell Reid was called to testify before a Parliamentary committee on proposed architectural designs for the new House of Commons, after the old one burned down in a fire in 1834.[40] In January 1840 Reid was appointed by the committee for the House of Lords dealing with the construction of the replacement for the Houses of Parliament. The post was in the capacity of ventilation engineer, in effect; and with its creation there began a long series of quarrels between Reid and Charles Barry, the architect.[42]

Reid advocated the installation of a very advanced ventilation system in the new House. His design had air being drawn into an underground chamber, where it would undergo either heating or cooling. It would then ascend into the chamber through thousands of small holes drilled into the floor, and would be extracted through the ceiling by a special ventilation fire within a great stack.[43]

Reid's reputation was made by his work in Westminster. He was commissioned for an air quality survey in 1837 by the Leeds and Selby Railway in their tunnel.[44] The steam vessels built for the Niger expedition of 1841 were fitted with ventilation systems based on Reid's Westminster model.[45] Air was dried, filtered and passed over charcoal.[46][47] Reid's ventilation method was also applied more fully to St. George's Hall, Liverpool, where the architect, Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, requested that Reid should be involved in ventilation design.[48] Reid considered this the only building in which his system was completely carried out.[49]

Fans

[edit]

With the advent of practical steam power, ceiling fans could finally be used for ventilation. Reid installed four steam-powered fans in the ceiling of St George's Hospital in Liverpool, so that the pressure produced by the fans would force the incoming air upward and through vents in the ceiling. Reid's pioneering work provides the basis for ventilation systems to this day.[43] He was remembered as "Dr. Reid the ventilator" in the twenty-first century in discussions of energy efficiency, by Lord Wade of Chorlton.[50]

History and development of ventilation rate standards

[edit]

Ventilating a space with fresh air aims to avoid "bad air". The study of what constitutes bad air dates back to the 1600s when the scientist Mayow studied asphyxia of animals in confined bottles.[51] The poisonous component of air was later identified as carbon dioxide (CO2), by Lavoisier in the very late 1700s, starting a debate as to the nature of "bad air" which humans perceive to be stuffy or unpleasant. Early hypotheses included excess concentrations of CO2 and oxygen depletion. However, by the late 1800s, scientists thought biological contamination, not oxygen or CO2, was the primary component of unacceptable indoor air. However, it was noted as early as 1872 that CO2 concentration closely correlates to perceived air quality.

The first estimate of minimum ventilation rates was developed by Tredgold in 1836.[52] This was followed by subsequent studies on the topic by Billings [53] in 1886 and Flugge in 1905. The recommendations of Billings and Flugge were incorporated into numerous building codes from 1900–the 1920s and published as an industry standard by ASHVE (the predecessor to ASHRAE) in 1914.[51]

The study continued into the varied effects of thermal comfort, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and biological contaminants. The research was conducted with human subjects in controlled test chambers. Two studies, published between 1909 and 1911, showed that carbon dioxide was not the offending component. Subjects remained satisfied in chambers with high levels of CO2, so long as the chamber remained cool.[51] (Subsequently, it has been determined that CO2 is, in fact, harmful at concentrations over 50,000ppm[54])

ASHVE began a robust research effort in 1919. By 1935, ASHVE-funded research conducted by Lemberg, Brandt, and Morse – again using human subjects in test chambers – suggested the primary component of "bad air" was an odor, perceived by the human olfactory nerves.[55] Human response to odor was found to be logarithmic to contaminant concentrations, and related to temperature. At lower, more comfortable temperatures, lower ventilation rates were satisfactory. A 1936 human test chamber study by Yaglou, Riley, and Coggins culminated much of this effort, considering odor, room volume, occupant age, cooling equipment effects, and recirculated air implications, which guided ventilation rates.[56] The Yagle research has been validated, and adopted into industry standards, beginning with the ASA code in 1946. From this research base, ASHRAE (having replaced ASHVE) developed space-by-space recommendations, and published them as ASHRAE Standard 62-1975: Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality.

As more architecture incorporated mechanical ventilation, the cost of outdoor air ventilation came under some scrutiny. In 1973, in response to the 1973 oil crisis and conservation concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73 and 62–81) reduced required ventilation from 10 CFM (4.76 L/s) per person to 5 CFM (2.37 L/s) per person. In cold, warm, humid, or dusty climates, it is preferable to minimize ventilation with outdoor air to conserve energy, cost, or filtration. This critique (e.g. Tiller[57]) led ASHRAE to reduce outdoor ventilation rates in 1981, particularly in non-smoking areas. However subsequent research by Fanger,[58] W. Cain, and Janssen validated the Yagle model. The reduced ventilation rates were found to be a contributing factor to sick building syndrome.[59]

The 1989 ASHRAE standard (Standard 62–89) states that appropriate ventilation guidelines are 20 CFM (9.2 L/s) per person in an office building, and 15 CFM (7.1 L/s) per person for schools, while 2004 Standard 62.1-2004 has lower recommendations again (see tables below). ANSI/ASHRAE (Standard 62–89) speculated that "comfort (odor) criteria are likely to be satisfied if the ventilation rate is set so that 1,000 ppm CO2 is not exceeded"[60] while OSHA has set a limit of 5000 ppm over 8 hours.[61]

Historical ventilation rates
Author or source Year Ventilation rate (IP) Ventilation rate (SI) Basis or rationale
Tredgold 1836 4 CFM per person 2 L/s per person Basic metabolic needs, breathing rate, and candle burning
Billings 1895 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Indoor air hygiene, preventing spread of disease
Flugge 1905 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Excessive temperature or unpleasant odor
ASHVE 1914 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Based on Billings, Flugge and contemporaries
Early US Codes 1925 30 CFM per person 15 L/s per person Same as above
Yaglou 1936 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Odor control, outdoor air as a fraction of total air
ASA 1946 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Based on Yahlou and contemporaries
ASHRAE 1975 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Same as above
ASHRAE 1981 10 CFM per person 5 L/s per person For non-smoking areas, reduced.
ASHRAE 1989 15 CFM per person 7.5 L/s per person Based on Fanger, W. Cain, and Janssen

ASHRAE continues to publish space-by-space ventilation rate recommendations, which are decided by a consensus committee of industry experts. The modern descendants of ASHRAE standard 62-1975 are ASHRAE Standard 62.1, for non-residential spaces, and ASHRAE 62.2 for residences.

In 2004, the calculation method was revised to include both an occupant-based contamination component and an area–based contamination component.[62] These two components are additive, to arrive at an overall ventilation rate. The change was made to recognize that densely populated areas were sometimes overventilated (leading to higher energy and cost) using a per-person methodology.

Occupant Based Ventilation Rates,[62] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004

IP Units SI Units Category Examples
0 cfm/person 0 L/s/person Spaces where ventilation requirements are primarily associated with building elements, not occupants. Storage Rooms, Warehouses
5 cfm/person 2.5 L/s/person Spaces occupied by adults, engaged in low levels of activity Office space
7.5 cfm/person 3.5 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in higher levels of activity, but not strenuous, or activities generating more contaminants Retail spaces, lobbies
10 cfm/person 5 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in more strenuous activity, but not exercise, or activities generating more contaminants Classrooms, school settings
20 cfm/person 10 L/s/person Spaces where occupants are engaged in exercise, or activities generating many contaminants dance floors, exercise rooms

Area-based ventilation rates,[62] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004

IP Units SI Units Category Examples
0.06 cfm/ft2 0.30 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is normal, or similar to an office environment Conference rooms, lobbies
0.12 cfm/ft2 0.60 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is significantly higher than an office environment Classrooms, museums
0.18 cfm/ft2 0.90 L/s/m2 Spaces where space contamination is even higher than the previous category Laboratories, art classrooms
0.30 cfm/ft2 1.5 L/s/m2 Specific spaces in sports or entertainment where contaminants are released Sports, entertainment
0.48 cfm/ft2 2.4 L/s/m2 Reserved for indoor swimming areas, where chemical concentrations are high Indoor swimming areas

The addition of occupant- and area-based ventilation rates found in the tables above often results in significantly reduced rates compared to the former standard. This is compensated in other sections of the standard which require that this minimum amount of air is delivered to the breathing zone of the individual occupant at all times. The total outdoor air intake of the ventilation system (in multiple-zone variable air volume (VAV) systems) might therefore be similar to the airflow required by the 1989 standard.
From 1999 to 2010, there was considerable development of the application protocol for ventilation rates. These advancements address occupant- and process-based ventilation rates, room ventilation effectiveness, and system ventilation effectiveness[63]

Problems

[edit]
  • In hot, humid climates, unconditioned ventilation air can daily deliver approximately 260 milliliters of water for each cubic meters per hour (m3/h) of outdoor air (or one pound of water each day for each cubic feet per minute of outdoor air per day), annual average.[citation needed] This is a great deal of moisture and can create serious indoor moisture and mold problems. For example, given a 150 m2 building with an airflow of 180 m3/h this could result in about 47 liters of water accumulated per day.
  • Ventilation efficiency is determined by design and layout, and is dependent upon the placement and proximity of diffusers and return air outlets. If they are located closely together, supply air may mix with stale air, decreasing the efficiency of the HVAC system, and creating air quality problems.
  • System imbalances occur when components of the HVAC system are improperly adjusted or installed and can create pressure differences (too much-circulating air creating a draft or too little circulating air creating stagnancy).
  • Cross-contamination occurs when pressure differences arise, forcing potentially contaminated air from one zone to an uncontaminated zone. This often involves undesired odors or VOCs.
  • Re-entry of exhaust air occurs when exhaust outlets and fresh air intakes are either too close, prevailing winds change exhaust patterns or infiltration between intake and exhaust air flows.
  • Entrainment of contaminated outdoor air through intake flows will result in indoor air contamination. There are a variety of contaminated air sources, ranging from industrial effluent to VOCs put off by nearby construction work.[64] A recent study revealed that in urban European buildings equipped with ventilation systems lacking outdoor air filtration, the exposure to outdoor-originating pollutants indoors resulted in more Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) than exposure to indoor-emitted pollutants.[65]

See also

[edit]
  • Architectural engineering
  • Biological safety
  • Cleanroom
  • Environmental tobacco smoke
  • Fume hood
  • Head-end power
  • Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
  • Heat recovery ventilation
  • Mechanical engineering
  • Room air distribution
  • Sick building syndrome
  • Siheyuan
  • Solar chimney
  • Tulou
  • Windcatcher

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[edit]
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  59. ^ Joshi, SM (2008). "The sick building syndrome". Indian J Occup Environ Med. 12 (2): 61–64. doi:10.4103/0019-5278.43262. PMC 2796751. PMID 20040980. in section 3 "Inadequate ventilation"
  60. ^ "Standard 62.1-2004: Stricter or Not?" ASHRAE IAQ Applications, Spring 2006. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) accessed 11 June 2014
  61. ^ Apte, Michael G. Associations between indoor CO2 concentrations and sick building syndrome symptoms in U.S. office buildings: an analysis of the 1994–1996 BASE study data." Indoor Air, Dec 2000: 246–58.
  62. ^ a b c Stanke D. 2006. "Explaining Science Behind Standard 62.1-2004". ASHRAE IAQ Applications, V7, Summer 2006. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) accessed 11 June 2014
  63. ^ Stanke, DA. 2007. "Standard 62.1-2004: Stricter or Not?" ASHRAE IAQ Applications, Spring 2006. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) accessed 11 June 2014
  64. ^ US EPA. Section 2: Factors Affecting Indoor Air Quality. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2009.cite web: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  65. ^ Belias, Evangelos; Licina, Dusan (2024). "European residential ventilation: Investigating the impact on health and energy demand". Energy and Buildings. 304 113839. Bibcode:2024EneBu.30413839B. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113839.
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Air Infiltration & Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

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  • Publications from the Air Infiltration & Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (EBC)

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  • Publications from the International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (EBC) ventilation-related research projects-annexes:
    • EBC Annex 9 Minimum Ventilation Rates
    • EBC Annex 18 Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems
    • EBC Annex 26 Energy Efficient Ventilation of Large Enclosures
    • EBC Annex 27 Evaluation and Demonstration of Domestic Ventilation Systems
    • EBC Annex 35 Control Strategies for Hybrid Ventilation in New and Retrofitted Office Buildings (HYBVENT)
    • EBC Annex 62 Ventilative Cooling

International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate

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  • Indoor Air Journal
  • Indoor Air Conference Proceedings

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

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  • ASHRAE Standard 62.1 – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
  • ASHRAE Standard 62.2 – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Residential Buildings