Local ordinances play a critical role in shaping the everyday life of communities, laying down the rules and standards that govern various aspects of municipal governance. Among these, zoning, noise, and health regulations are particularly significant because they directly affect both the quality of life and economic vitality of communities.
Zoning Ordinances
Zoning ordinances are perhaps the most influential type of local legislation. These laws define how land within certain jurisdictions can be used, affecting everything from housing development to commercial and industrial activities. Zoning helps ensure that cities develop in an orderly fashion while balancing growth with environmental stewardship and community values.
For instance, residential zoning protects neighborhoods by limiting intrusive commercial or industrial activities. Conversely, commercial zoning allows for business operations which could be disruptive if placed within purely residential areas. Industrial zones are typically located where negative impacts on residential communities can be minimized.
Zoning also includes provisions for special use permits, allowing exceptions to general rules under specific conditions. This flexibility helps accommodate unique needs without undermining overall planning objectives.
Noise Ordinances
Noise ordinances are essential for maintaining peace within communities. They set limits on acceptable noise levels, thus helping to avoid conflicts among residents and between residents and businesses. Common sources of noise covered by these regulations include household parties, construction activities, and operations of bars or clubs.
Effective noise regulation ensures that residents have peaceful home environments while still allowing for economic activities that can generate significant noise. Enforcement typically involves measuring decibel levels with sound meters; violations can lead to fines or other penalties.
Health Regulations
Health ordinances safeguard public health through various measures aimed at controlling disease spread and ensuring clean environments. These rules can cover a broad range of issues including sanitation standards for restaurants, requirements for public pools, and guidelines for managing infectious diseases.
For example, health codes in restaurants dictate how food should be stored, prepared, and served to prevent foodborne illnesses like salmonella or E.coli outbreaks. Similarly, regulations concerning waste disposal aim to prevent pollution and its harmful effects on community health.
Public health ordinances are not only reactive but also proactive; they often mandate vaccinations during outbreaks or require regular inspections of facilities prone to health risks such as nursing homes or childcare centers.
Conclusion
In summary, local ordinances regarding zoning, noise control, and health safety are foundational to city management policies that prioritize sustainable development while protecting citizen welfare. Zoning laws help manage physical space efficiently; noise ordinances preserve tranquility in communal spaces; while health regulations aim to keep populations safe from environmental threats. Through these measures combined with conscientious enforcement efforts by local authorities-communities can thrive safely and harmoniously.
Understanding the Permit Process: Steps for Application and Approval
Navigating local ordinances and securing the necessary permits can often seem like a daunting task. Whether you're planning to build a new home, start a business, or make renovations to an existing property, understanding the permit process is crucial to ensure compliance with local regulations and to avoid potential legal complications.
Step 1: Research Local Ordinances
The first step in the permit application process is to familiarize yourself with your local government's zoning laws and building codes. These ordinances are established to maintain safety standards, preserve community aesthetics, or manage growth in accordance with a city's comprehensive plan. This information is usually accessible on your city or county's official website or at the local planning department office.
Step 2: Preliminary Consultation
It's highly advisable to schedule a consultation with local planning officers. During this meeting, you can present your project details and receive specific guidance on what permits you will need. This step can provide valuable insights into potential challenges or additional requirements specific to your area that may not be immediately apparent from reading ordinances alone.
Step 3: Preparing Your Application
Once you understand what's required, you'll need to gather all pertinent documents for your application. This typically includes detailed plans of the project, proof of property ownership, site surveys, and possibly environmental impact assessments. Depending on the complexity of your project, it might be beneficial to work with an architect, engineer, or planner during this phase.
Step 4: Submitting Your Application
With all documents prepared, submit them along with your application form(s) to the appropriate municipal department. Ensure all forms are filled out completely and accurately to avoid delays in processing. Some municipalities now offer online submissions while others might require a physical submission at their offices.
Step 5: Review Process
After submission, your application will undergo a review process where city planners and other officials assess whether your plans comply with local codes and ordinances. This process can vary greatly in length depending on the complexity of your project and workload of the reviewing department.
Step 6: Addressing Feedback
It's common for there to be some back-and-forth communication during this stage as issues may arise that need clarification or adjustment in your plans. Be responsive and cooperative during these discussions as solving these issues efficiently can help speed up approval times.
Step 7: Approval and Receiving Permits
If all goes well and no significant changes are needed, your permit will be approved. You'll then be issued the permits necessary for starting construction or operation based on compliance with local laws.
Step 8: Inspections and Final Compliance
Even after receiving permits, most projects require periodic inspections by municipal officials as work progresses. These inspections ensure that construction conforms precisely to approved plans and adheres strictly to safety standards set by local codes.
In conclusion, although understanding local ordinances and navigating through permit applications may initially seem complex, breaking down the process into manageable steps makes it much more approachable. Preparation is key-ensure that you have all relevant information upfront for smooth processing through every phase of approval.
When navigating the landscape of local ordinances and permits, it is crucial for business owners, contractors, and residents to thoroughly understand and adhere to the specific regulations set forth by their local government. This understanding not only ensures legal compliance but also facilitates smoother project execution.
Local ordinances are essentially laws or regulations enacted by municipalities that govern various activities within their jurisdictions. These can range from zoning laws and building codes to health and safety regulations. Permits, on the other hand, are official approvals issued by local authorities that allow individuals or entities to undertake certain activities that are regulated under these ordinances.
One of the key considerations when applying for permits is to have a comprehensive grasp of the required documentation. This typically includes detailed plans of the proposed project, proof of ownership or right to use the property, environmental impact assessments if necessary, and potentially a host of other documents depending on the specific nature of the project. For instance, a construction permit may require site plans, architectural drawings, and engineering reports. Each document must be prepared in accordance with local standards and submitted in the format required by the permitting authority.
Moreover, understanding local requirements is paramount. Local requirements can vary significantly not just from state to state but often from one municipality to another. For example, a city might have strict guidelines on building heights or facade designs in certain districts to preserve historical character or meet urban planning objectives. Failure to comply with these could result in denial of permits or costly modifications down the line.
Another aspect of local requirements is timing; some permits might be subject to seasonal restrictions due to factors like environmental concerns during certain times of year (such as bird nesting seasons) or heightened community activities (like festivals). Furthermore, public notice periods and opportunities for public comment can also influence timelines significantly.
Navigating through these requirements demands diligence and often requires consultation with experts familiar with local laws such as land-use attorneys or municipal planners who specialize in getting projects approved under specific local frameworks.
In conclusion, successfully applying for permits within the context of local ordinances requires thorough preparation in terms of documentation gathering and a deep understanding of localized regulatory landscapes. By approaching this process with careful planning and respect for community standards and legal stipulations, applicants can enhance their chances for smooth permit approval thereby paving way for successful project execution.
Local ordinances and permits serve as fundamental components of municipal governance, providing a framework that dictates the permissible activities within a specific locality. These rules are vital for maintaining order, ensuring public safety, and promoting community well-being. However, not adhering to these local regulations can have significant consequences for both businesses and residents alike.
For businesses, compliance with local ordinances is crucial for several reasons. Firstly, it ensures operational legality. A business operating without necessary permits or in violation of zoning laws risks closure or hefty fines. This potential disruption can lead to a loss of income and damage the business's reputation, which might deter future investment and customer trust.
Moreover, non-compliance can lead to legal battles that are costly both in terms of money and time. For instance, if a business fails to adhere to health and safety codes, it could face lawsuits from affected individuals or groups. The litigation process can drain resources that would otherwise be used for business development or improvement.
Additionally, businesses rely on good relationships with the community and local government; non-compliance can strain these relations. For example, if a company continually violates environmental regulations causing pollution in the area, it will likely ignite community outrage and diminish its standing with local authorities who could impede future expansions or developments through stricter controls and sanctions.
Residents also face detrimental effects due to non-compliance with ordinances. Living in an area where ordinances are frequently violated can lead to decreased quality of life. For example, if residential noise ordinances are ignored, it could result in persistent noise pollution that affects daily living conditions and disrupts sleep patterns.
Health risks also increase if environmental protections provided by law are not respected—such as when companies or individuals bypass regulations prohibiting the release of hazardous substances into air or water sources. Such actions can cause long-term health issues among the populace such as respiratory problems or contaminated drinking water.
Property values may decline if an area becomes known for ordinance violations due to possible implications about safety and desirability. This decrease in property values impacts residents financially through reduced equity in their homes—a direct effect of sustained non-compliance around them.
From another perspective, consistent enforcement of local ordinances provides predictability which allows both businesses and residents to plan effectively for their futures without fear of unexpected disruptions caused by unlawful activities nearby.
In conclusion, adherence to local ordinances is essential for maintaining harmony within communities by balancing individual rights with collective welfare. It fosters environments where businesses can thrive responsibly while safeguarding resident interests leading to healthier, more sustainable communities. Therefore, understanding and complying with these laws isn't just about avoiding negative consequences—it's about contributing positively towards communal spaces where everyone has the opportunity to prosper safely and peacefully.
Navigating disputes related to ordinances and permit denials can be a challenging process for property owners, businesses, and developers. Such conflicts often arise when local government bodies deny permits based on zoning laws, building codes, or other regulatory ordinances designed to govern land use and development within their jurisdictions. Understanding how to effectively manage these disputes is crucial for advancing projects while maintaining compliance with local regulations.
The first step in navigating these disputes is to thoroughly understand the specific ordinance or regulation that forms the basis of the permit denial. Ordinances are established to address a wide range of issues including safety, aesthetics, environmental protection, and community planning objectives. By reviewing the local laws and regulations, as well as the reasons provided by the authorities for the permit denial, one can assess whether there has been a misinterpretation or misapplication of the law.
Once you have a firm grasp of the relevant ordinance, consider reaching out directly to the permitting agency or local government officials involved. Open communication can sometimes resolve misunderstandings or provide additional context that might not have been considered initially. During these discussions, it's important to remain professional and constructive; presenting your case logically and respectfully can help facilitate an amicable resolution.
If direct negotiation does not yield results, seeking legal counsel should be your next step. A lawyer who specializes in local government law or land use can offer valuable advice on your situation. They may suggest applying for a variance or exception if your project slightly deviates from established codes but still aligns broadly with community standards and goals. Legal experts might also recommend filing an appeal if they believe that the permit was unjustly denied based on existing legal frameworks.
Another effective approach is participating actively in public meetings where changes to ordinances are discussed. Engaging in these forums allows stakeholders to voice their concerns and influence policymaking that affects future permit applications. Building relationships with community leaders and other influential figures can also enhance your understanding of local political dynamics which could be beneficial for long-term project planning.
In cases where disputes escalate, mediation might be an alternative worth considering before engaging in more formal legal proceedings like litigation. Mediation involves a neutral third party who helps both sides reach a compromise that respects both individual property rights and community standards.
Finally, it's essential to stay informed about updates in local laws and regulations by subscribing to newsletters from your city council or regularly checking their official websites. Staying updated not only helps you adhere to current laws but also prepares you better for future applications or disputes.
Navigating through disputes related to ordinances and permit denials demands patience, understanding of local law intricacies, open communication lines with relevant parties, strategic legal thinking when necessary, public engagement during policy discussions, consideration of mediation options before litigation, and staying informed about regulatory changes. By adopting this comprehensive approach, individuals and organizations can more effectively manage their development projects within the scope of local governmental structures.
Navigating the complex web of local ordinances and permit processes can be daunting for both new and seasoned property owners alike. Whether you're looking to renovate your home, start a new business, or engage in land development, understanding the specific regulations that apply in your locality is crucial. Fortunately, there are several valuable resources available to guide individuals through these legal mazes.
Firstly, one of the most direct routes to understanding local ordinances is through city or county government websites. These portals offer comprehensive sections on permits and zoning laws that affect construction, business operations, and even day-to-day activities like pet ownership. For those who find government websites difficult to navigate, reaching out directly to city or county clerks can provide a more personalized guide through the necessary procedures. These officials are typically very knowledgeable about local codes and can provide up-to-date information on any recent changes.
Another invaluable resource is local libraries. Many libraries have sections dedicated to local government documents including building codes, zoning laws, and comprehensive plans. Librarians can often assist in locating relevant documents and may also know about community workshops or information sessions on navigating local ordinances.
Legal aid societies are also fantastic resources for individuals who require more detailed guidance or who might face legal obstacles during their application processes for permits. These organizations can offer advice or representation from lawyers who specialize in municipal law without substantial fees. This is particularly useful for low-income residents or those facing significant regulatory challenges.
For those seeking a deeper dive into specifics, professional associations related to real estate development, architecture, and business often hold seminars and publish guidelines on complying with local laws and obtaining necessary permits. Joining such an organization provides access to a network of professionals who face similar bureaucratic challenges.
Additionally, many communities have online forums or social media groups where locals discuss neighborhood issues including zoning changes or difficulties with permit applications. These platforms allow residents to share their experiences and solutions regarding common problems with local governance.
In summary, while dealing with local ordinances and permits can initially seem overwhelming, numerous resources are available to help navigate these waters smoothly. From government offices and libraries to legal aid societies and professional networks, support is widely available – ensuring that residents not only comply with their local laws but thrive within them.
The International Society of Arboriculture, commonly known as ISA, is an international non-profit organization headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia,[1] United States. The ISA serves the tree care industry as a paid membership association and a credentialing organization that promotes the professional practice of arboriculture.[2] ISA focuses on providing research, technology, and education opportunities for tree care professionals to develop their arboricultural expertise. ISA also works to educate the general public about the benefits of trees and the need for proper tree care.[3][4]
Worldwide, ISA has 22,000 members and 31,000 ISA-certified tree care professionals with 59 chapters, associate organizations, and professional affiliates throughout North America, Asia, Oceania, Europe, and South America.[5]
ISA offers the following credentials:
The Certified Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have a minimum of three years' full-time experience working in the professional tree care industry and who have passed an examination covering facets of arboriculture.[6][7] The Western Chapter of the ISA started the certification program in the 1980s,[citation needed] with the ISA initiating it in 1992.[8]
The Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA) or simply Master Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have attained the highest level of arboriculture offered by the ISA and one of the two top levels in the field. There are several paths to the Board Certified Master Arborist, but typically on average each has been an ISA Certified Arborist a minimum of three to five years before qualifying for the exam (this can vary depending upon other education and experience). The certification began as a result of the need to distinguish the top few arborists and allow others to identify those with superior credentials.
The Master Arborist examination is a far more extensive exam than the Certified Arborist Exam, and covers a broad scope of both aboriculture management, science and work practices. The exam includes the following areas:
Another credential that is on a par with the Master Arborist is that of the American Society of Consulting Arborists, the Registered Consulting Arborist.[9] There are perhaps six hundred individuals with that qualification, and only 70 arborists who hold both credentials.[citation needed]
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËÂrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËÂrˈbÉâ€Ã‹Âr-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
Lithia Springs may refer to:
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δÃŽÂνδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξÃÂλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
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The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
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