Analyzing Stair Step Gaps in Block Foundations

Analyzing Stair Step Gaps in Block Foundations

Seasonal Soil Changes: Explanation of how various seasons contribute to soil expansion and contraction.

Stair step cracks in block foundations are a common concern for homeowners and builders alike. These distinctive cracks, resembling a staircase pattern, often signal underlying issues that could compromise the structural integrity of a building if not addressed promptly. Epoxy bonds cracks to restore structural strength Basement Damage Repair police inspector. Understanding the root causes of these cracks is essential in both preventing them and implementing effective repairs.


One of the primary causes of stair step cracks is soil movement beneath the foundation. Many homes are built on expansive soils that swell when wet and shrink when dry. This cycle can lead to uneven settlement or heaving, which exerts pressure on the foundation walls.

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Over time, this stress manifests as stair step cracks, particularly in areas where soil conditions vary dramatically with weather changes.


Another significant factor contributing to these types of cracks is poor drainage around the home. When water accumulates near the foundation-due to inadequate grading, clogged gutters, or faulty downspouts-it can seep into the soil and increase hydrostatic pressure against the walls. This pressure can cause block foundations to bow inward slightly and develop stair step fractures along mortar joints.


Additionally, construction practices play a vital role in determining how susceptible a foundation is to cracking. Foundations that were not designed adequately for local soil conditions or those that lack sufficient reinforcement are more prone to developing structural issues over time. Similarly, using low-quality materials or rushing through construction phases can result in weak spots within the masonry that become apparent as stair step cracks under stress.


Temperature fluctuations also contribute to this problem by causing materials to expand and contract. During extreme cold or heat, concrete blocks and mortar joints experience thermal expansion or contraction at different rates. This differential movement can weaken bonds between blocks, leading to cracking patterns characteristic of stair steps.


Tree roots pose another risk factor by exerting lateral pressure on foundation walls as they grow and expand underground in search of moisture and nutrients. Large trees planted too close to a structure may eventually destabilize its base through physical root intrusion or by altering soil moisture levels around it.


In conclusion, while stair step cracks in block foundations might initially appear as minor cosmetic concerns, they often indicate deeper problems related to soil movement, drainage issues, construction quality, temperature effects, or nearby vegetation growth. Addressing these underlying causes not only prevents further damage but also ensures long-term stability for buildings resting upon such foundations-an investment well worth considering for any homeowner intent on preserving their property's value and safety over time.

Foundation cracks can be a homeowner's nightmare, often signaling potential structural issues that might compromise the integrity and safety of a dwelling. Among the various types of foundation cracks, stair-step gaps in block foundations are particularly concerning. These types of cracks typically manifest in a zigzag pattern along the mortar joints of concrete block or brick walls, resembling stairs-hence the name. Understanding how to identify and assess the severity of these cracks is crucial for timely intervention and repair.


Stair-step cracks occur primarily due to differential settlement or movement within a building's foundation. This movement can be caused by several factors including soil erosion, expansive clay soils, poor drainage, or inadequate construction practices. As such, identifying these cracks early on is essential to prevent further damage.


The first step in assessing stair-step gaps is careful observation. Homeowners should look for telltale signs such as uneven floors, doors or windows that stick or won't close properly, and visible gaps in the exterior block walls. These indicators suggest that there might be an underlying issue with the foundation.


Once identified, it's important to assess the severity of these cracks. Not all cracks are created equal; some may be superficial while others indicate significant structural problems. Minor stair-step cracks that are less than a quarter-inch wide may not pose immediate danger but should still be monitored over time for any changes in size or shape.


However, if the cracks are wider than a quarter inch or have appeared suddenly after an event like heavy rainfall or an earthquake, they could signify serious structural concerns requiring immediate attention from a professional structural engineer or foundation specialist. Additionally, if the wall itself is bulging or bowing outwards around these gaps, it may indicate severe stress on your foundation which needs urgent remediation.


In assessing severity, it's also critical to consider other environmental factors such as moisture levels around your home's perimeter and seasonal weather patterns which might exacerbate existing problems.


Once you've assessed the situation with either minor concerns or potentially major issues identified through professional evaluation-it becomes necessary to address them appropriately based on their severity level-from simple patching solutions for hairline fractures up through more extensive interventions like underpinning where entire sections may need reinforcement against shifting soils beneath them.


In conclusion, while stair-step gaps in block foundations can signal anything from benign settling processes up through dangerous instabilities threatening overall structure integrity-it remains imperative homeowners remain vigilant about monitoring any changes occurring along their property lines so they can act swiftly should anything arise warranting concern beyond mere cosmetic repairs alone; enlisting expert help when dealing with substantial risks ensuring both safety peace-of-mind moving forward into future seasons ahead without fear falling victim catastrophic failures lurking beneath surface undetected until too late intervene effectively mitigate impacts felt long-term basis residents alike involved circumstances surrounding same issues faced daily across globe today tomorrow thereafter alike timelessly ongoing matter utmost importance regardless locale involved therein aptly handled accordingly every instance encountered much possible ensure best outcomes achieved ultimately safeguarding investments made therein protecting lives housed within safe secure manner intended originally designed withstand test time itself indefinitely barring unforeseen calamities beyond control measures taken beforehand adequately prepared respond accordingly whatever arises anyway anywhere anytime needed most ultimately preserving lasting legacy left behind those came before us paving way forward generations yet come enjoy fruits labor sown harvest reaped justly deserved hard work dedication perseverance shown throughout journey undertaken thus far collectively united common purpose shared goal better brighter future envisioned dreamed realized together hand-in-hand hope faith guiding light illuminating path tread onward ever upward toward success fulfillment eternal yearning strives attain universally humanity boundless potential awaits discover explore embrace wholeheartedly true spirit

How Temperature Fluctuations Affect Foundation Cracks

How Temperature Fluctuations Affect Foundation Cracks

Temperature fluctuations can have a significant impact on the structural integrity of a home, particularly when it comes to foundation cracks.. These fluctuations, common in many regions due to seasonal changes or shifting weather patterns, can cause expansion and contraction in building materials, leading to stress and potential damage.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Assessing Regional Climate Patterns for Crack Risks

Assessing Regional Climate Patterns for Crack Risks

In recent years, the growing impacts of climate change have brought about significant challenges for infrastructure resilience, particularly in regions susceptible to varying climate patterns.. One of the critical concerns is the risk of cracks in infrastructure due to these changing patterns.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

The Science Behind Expansive Soils and Foundation Damage

The Science Behind Expansive Soils and Foundation Damage

Expansive soils, a geotechnical challenge affecting construction projects worldwide, are responsible for significant foundation damage.. Understanding the science behind these soils and examining real-world examples is crucial for engineers and builders who aim to mitigate their detrimental impacts.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Evaluating Crack Types to Prevent Long-Term Structural Issues

Evaluating Crack Types to Prevent Long-Term Structural Issues

Cracks in structures are more than just an aesthetic concern; they can be harbingers of deeper, long-term structural issues.. Evaluating crack types to prevent these potential problems is crucial for maintaining the integrity and safety of buildings and infrastructure.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Impact of Climate on Soil and Foundations: Discussing the influence of weather patterns and climate change on soil stability.

Stair step gaps in block foundations are a common issue that can cause significant concern for homeowners and builders alike. These gaps, often appearing as a series of diagonal cracks on the surface of a foundation wall, can indicate underlying structural problems that, if left unaddressed, may lead to severe damage. Understanding both the causes of these gaps and effective methods for repairing them is essential for ensuring the longevity and safety of any structure built on such foundations.


The formation of stair step gaps in block foundations typically results from differential settlement or movement within the soil beneath a building.

Analyzing Stair Step Gaps in Block Foundations - Middle Tennessee

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This movement can be caused by various factors including changes in moisture content, poor drainage, or inadequate compaction during construction. As the soil shifts, it creates uneven pressure on the foundation walls, leading to crack formations that commonly follow the mortar joints between blocks in a distinctive stair-step pattern.


To address this issue effectively, it is crucial first to assess the severity and underlying cause of the cracks. Minor cracks might not pose immediate structural threats and can often be repaired relatively simply. However, larger or expanding cracks could indicate significant foundation issues requiring more comprehensive solutions.


One common method for repairing minor stair step gaps involves injecting epoxy or polyurethane foam into the cracks. This technique not only seals the gap but also helps to bind together separated sections of masonry blocks, restoring some integrity to the affected area. The choice between epoxy and polyurethane largely depends on whether flexibility (polyurethane) or strength (epoxy) is needed for a particular repair.


For more extensive damage where foundational stability is compromised, underpinning might be necessary. Underpinning involves strengthening and stabilizing an existing foundation by extending its depth or breadth so it rests on more stable soil layers. Techniques like helical piers or push piers are popular options; they involve driving steel piers deep into stable strata beneath loose topsoil until adequate support is achieved.


In addition to addressing visible damage through repairs like crack injections or underpinning, it's equally important to tackle root causes such as drainage issues around your property. Installing proper grading away from structures along with French drains can help manage water flow efficiently thus reducing further soil movement which contributes heavily towards formation of new gaps over time.


While professional consultation should always be sought when dealing with significant structural concerns related directly back towards one's home's stability - understanding basic principles behind analyzing & fixing these kinds problems goes long way empowering individuals take proactive steps against potential threats before they escalate beyond manageable proportions!


In conclusion: though daunting at first glance - stair-step gap troubles don't have spell disaster provided correct measures implemented timely fashion based informed decisions guided expert insights where necessary!

Impact of Climate on Soil and Foundations: Discussing the influence of weather patterns and climate change on soil stability.

Methods for Monitoring Soil Movement: Techniques and tools used to track soil shifts around foundations.

Foundation damage is a critical concern for homeowners, particularly when it manifests in the form of stair-step gaps in block foundations. These visible cracks are not just an aesthetic issue; they can signify serious underlying structural problems that, if left unaddressed, may lead to costly repairs and potential safety hazards. Implementing preventive measures to avoid future foundation damage is essential for maintaining the integrity of any building.


One of the primary causes of foundation issues is poor drainage.

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Water accumulation around the foundation can lead to soil expansion and contraction, which exerts pressure on the walls and causes cracks over time. To prevent this, it's crucial to ensure that your property's drainage system is functioning properly. This includes keeping gutters clean and directing downspouts away from the foundation to prevent water from pooling around the base of your home.


Another significant factor contributing to foundation damage is inconsistent moisture levels in the soil surrounding your home. During dry periods, soil can shrink away from the foundation, while excessive moisture can cause it to swell. Installing a proper irrigation system helps maintain consistent moisture levels in the soil, thereby reducing stress on your foundation.


Additionally, landscaping plays a vital role in preventing future foundation damage. Trees and shrubs planted too close to a house can pose risks due to their root systems exerting pressure on or drawing moisture from beneath the foundation. Selecting plants with less invasive roots and maintaining a safe distance between large trees and your home can mitigate these risks significantly.


Monitoring for early warning signs of potential issues is another key strategy in preventive maintenance. Regularly inspect your home's exterior for visible cracks or uneven settling that could indicate developing problems. Indoors, look out for doors or windows that stick or don't close properly-these could be signs of shifting foundations.


Moreover, professional inspections by structural engineers or qualified contractors are invaluable for identifying vulnerabilities before they escalate into major issues. Experts have the tools and knowledge necessary to assess any existing damage accurately and recommend appropriate corrective actions.


Taking action early not only saves money but also ensures peace of mind knowing that your home remains safe and structurally sound. By focusing on adequate drainage systems, consistent soil moisture levels through proper irrigation practices, thoughtful landscaping choices, vigilant monitoring for warning signs, and leveraging professional expertise when needed, you can effectively prevent future stair-step gaps from occurring in block foundations.


In conclusion, safeguarding against future foundation damage involves a combination of proactive measures tailored towards addressing environmental factors affecting structural integrity over time. Homeowners who invest effort into understanding these elements stand a better chance at preserving their properties' value while avoiding unexpected headaches down the road-a testament worth considering given how foundational stability underpins both our homes' durability as well as our sense of security within them each day forward.

Repair Solutions for Foundation Cracks: Different strategies and technologies available for repairing cracks in foundations due to shifting soils.

When it comes to maintaining the structural integrity of a home, few issues are as critical as foundation repairs. Among the various problems that can arise, stair step gaps in block foundations often signal underlying issues that require prompt attention. These gaps, which form in a zig-zag pattern along the mortar joints of concrete blocks, indicate movement within the foundation that could lead to significant damage if left unchecked. Addressing these problems not only involves technical expertise but also careful cost considerations and budgeting to ensure effective and sustainable solutions.


Stair step gaps typically result from differential settlement or movement due to soil conditions beneath the foundation. Expansive soils, poor drainage, or inadequate construction practices can exacerbate these conditions, leading to visible cracks and gaps. While understanding the cause is crucial for repair strategy, homeowners must also confront financial considerations head-on.


The cost of repairing stair step gaps in block foundations can vary widely based on factors such as the extent of damage, local labor rates, materials required, and the specific repair methods employed. Common solutions may include underpinning with piers, hydraulic jacking to stabilize or lift portions of the foundation, and sealing cracks to prevent water ingress. Each method carries its own price tag and suitability depending on the circumstances.


To begin budgeting effectively for foundation repairs, homeowners should first seek a comprehensive inspection by a qualified structural engineer or foundation specialist. This evaluation provides insight into not just the severity of existing issues but also potential future risks. Armed with this knowledge, homeowners can prioritize necessary repairs while considering their financial situation.


Obtaining multiple quotes from reputable contractors is another vital step in managing costs. Comparing estimates allows homeowners to gauge fair pricing and assess different approaches proposed by experts. It's essential to inquire about warranties offered on work performed; reliable guarantees provide peace of mind against further expenses down the line.


In addition to direct repair costs, ancillary expenses must be considered when budgeting for foundation work. For instance, landscaping might need restoration post-repair due to excavation work around the property perimeter. Interior finishes like drywall may require patching once foundational stability is restored-these secondary costs should be factored into overall budget planning.


For many families facing unexpected home repair needs like foundation work, financing options might alleviate immediate financial strain. Home equity loans or lines of credit offer avenues for spreading out payments over time rather than bearing upfront costs entirely at once-a practical consideration particularly where extensive repairs are needed.


Insurance policies occasionally cover certain types of foundation damage caused by natural events; however typical wear-and-tear or negligence-induced issues generally fall outside coverage bounds without specific endorsements included beforehand-reviewing policy specifics with an agent helps clarify possible support avenues before committing personal funds exclusively toward rectifications needed onsite premises themselves alone necessarily instead otherwise potentially instead alternatively possibly perhaps even conceivably feasibly hypothetically practically realistically ultimately finally conclusively.


Ultimately investing wisely today means safeguarding tomorrow's stability within household itself ensuring value retention longer term view too-as well as securing safe inhabitable living environment comforting secure sanctuary haven abode retreat domicile residence habitat dwelling quarter shelter refuge asylum lodging housing accommodation occupancy premises establishment setup installation locale venue site emplacement setting milieu surrounding context sphere domain territory province district region zone area neighborhood community society civil order agency entity organization institution authority jurisdiction constituency electorate populace citizenry public nation state country homeland fatherland motherland land nation realm empire kingdom principality sovereignty suzerainty dominion commonwealth federation union league coalition confederation alliance consortium cartel syndicate combine trust compact pact agreement treaty concordat covenant accord protocol charter contract bond pledge guarantee warranty assurance undertaking commitment promise vow oath fe

Preventative Measures: Tips for homeowners to minimize the risk of foundation damage from seasonal soil changes.

When it comes to maintaining the structural integrity of a home, few issues are as concerning as foundation cracks. These can manifest in various forms, but one particularly common and telling sign is the appearance of stair-step gaps in block foundations. Homeowners facing this problem often grapple with a critical decision: Should they opt for professional repair services or tackle the issue themselves using DIY methods?


Professional approaches to foundation crack repair are typically characterized by their precision, expertise, and use of specialized equipment. Engaging a professional ensures that the root cause of the stair-step gaps is accurately diagnosed. Often, these specialists employ advanced techniques like laser levels and pressure gauges to assess the extent of damage and potential impact on the structure. Their solutions might include underpinning or installing helical piers, which are complex processes requiring both skill and experience.


Moreover, professionals bring an invaluable depth of knowledge to the table-not only about the specific problem at hand but also about local soil conditions and climate factors that may affect foundation stability. They can offer tailored solutions that address not just immediate repairs but also long-term preventative measures. While hiring experts comes with a higher price tag, it provides peace of mind knowing that comprehensive warranties often back their work.


On the other hand, DIY enthusiasts might be tempted by cost savings when considering repairing stair-step gaps themselves. Indeed, there is a growing market for consumer-grade products designed for minor foundation repairs-such as epoxy injection kits or hydraulic cement mixes-that claim to seal cracks effectively. For those who enjoy hands-on projects and have some level of construction familiarity, tackling small-scale repairs might seem feasible.


However, DIY approaches come with significant risks. The primary concern is misdiagnosing the severity of the problem or misunderstanding its underlying causes. Without proper assessment tools and engineering knowledge, there's a chance that superficial fixes could mask deeper issues that require professional intervention. Additionally, improper repair attempts could exacerbate damage over time or void any existing warranties on home structures.


In conclusion, while DIY methods may appear economical initially for addressing stair-step gaps in block foundations, they carry risks that can lead to more substantial problems down the line if not executed correctly. Professional repairs provide an advantage through their comprehensive assessments and expert application-essential elements when dealing with something as crucial as your home's foundation stability. Ultimately, whether you choose to go professional or DIY depends on your confidence in diagnosing structural issues accurately and executing effective repairs without compromising safety or reliability.

 

Construction site and equipment prepared for start of work in Cologne, Germany (2017)

Construction is a general term meaning the art and science of forming objects, systems, or organizations.[1] It comes from the Latin word constructio (from com- "together" and struere "to pile up") and Old French construction.[2] To 'construct' is a verb: the act of building, and the noun is construction: how something is built or the nature of its structure.

In its most widely used context, construction covers the processes involved in delivering buildings, infrastructure, industrial facilities, and associated activities through to the end of their life. It typically starts with planning, financing, and design that continues until the asset is built and ready for use. Construction also covers repairs and maintenance work, any works to expand, extend and improve the asset, and its eventual demolition, dismantling or decommissioning.

The construction industry contributes significantly to many countries' gross domestic products (GDP). Global expenditure on construction activities was about $4 trillion in 2012. In 2022, expenditure on the construction industry exceeded $11 trillion a year, equivalent to about 13 percent of global GDP. This spending was forecasted to rise to around $14.8 trillion in 2030.[3]

The construction industry promotes economic development and brings many non-monetary benefits to many countries, but it is one of the most hazardous industries. For example, about 20% (1,061) of US industry fatalities in 2019 happened in construction.[4]

History

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The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers and carpenters, appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, the artisan craftsmen were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later, diesel- and electric-powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.

Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction.[5]

Construction industry sectors

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Industrial assemblage of a thermal oxidizer in the United States

Broadly, there are three sectors of construction: buildings, infrastructure and industrial:[6]

  • Building construction is usually further divided into residential and non-residential.
  • Infrastructure, also called 'heavy civil' or 'heavy engineering', includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, railways, water or wastewater and utility distribution.
  • Industrial construction includes offshore construction (mainly of energy installations), mining and quarrying, refineries, chemical processing, mills and manufacturing plants.

The industry can also be classified into sectors or markets.[7] For example, Engineering News-Record (ENR), a US-based construction trade magazine, has compiled and reported data about the size of design and construction contractors. In 2014, it split the data into nine market segments: transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewage/waste, telecom, hazardous waste, and a tenth category for other projects.[8] ENR used data on transportation, sewage, hazardous waste and water to rank firms as heavy contractors.[9]

The Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System classify companies that perform or engage in construction into three subsectors: building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors. There are also categories for professional services firms (e.g., engineering, architecture, surveying, project management).[10][11]

Building construction

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Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan

Building construction is the process of adding structures to areas of land, also known as real property sites. Typically, a project is instigated by or with the owner of the property (who may be an individual or an organisation); occasionally, land may be compulsorily purchased from the owner for public use.[12]

Residential construction

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Units under construction in Brighton, Victoria, Australia

Residential construction may be undertaken by individual land-owners (self-built), by specialist housebuilders, by property developers, by general contractors, or by providers of public or social housing (e.g.: local authorities, housing associations). Where local zoning or planning policies allow, mixed-use developments may comprise both residential and non-residential construction (e.g.: retail, leisure, offices, public buildings, etc.).

Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority's regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g.: brick versus stone versus timber). Costs of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, access routes, local regulations, economies of scale (custom-designed homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople.[13]

Non-residential construction

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Construction of the Federal Reserve building in Kansas City, Missouri

Depending upon the type of building, non-residential building construction can be procured by a wide range of private and public organisations, including local authorities, educational and religious bodies, transport undertakings, retailers, hoteliers, property developers, financial institutions and other private companies. Most construction in these sectors is undertaken by general contractors.

Infrastructure construction

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Shasta Dam under construction in June 1942

Civil engineering covers the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, tunnels, airports, water and sewerage systems, pipelines, and railways.[14][15] Some general contractors have expertise in civil engineering; civil engineering contractors are firms dedicated to work in this sector, and may specialise in particular types of infrastructure.

Industrial construction

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The National Cement Share Company of Ethiopia's new plant in Dire Dawa

Industrial construction includes offshore construction (mainly of energy installations: oil and gas platforms, wind power), mining and quarrying, refineries, breweries, distilleries and other processing plants, power stations, steel mills, warehouses and factories.

Construction processes

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Some construction projects are small renovations or repair jobs, like repainting or fixing leaks, where the owner may act as designer, paymaster and laborer for the entire project. However, more complex or ambitious projects usually require additional multi-disciplinary expertise and manpower, so the owner may commission one or more specialist businesses to undertake detailed planning, design, construction and handover of the work. Often the owner will appoint one business to oversee the project (this may be a designer, a contractor, a construction manager, or other advisors); such specialists are normally appointed for their expertise in project delivery and construction management and will help the owner define the project brief, agree on a budget and schedule, liaise with relevant public authorities, and procure materials and the services of other specialists (the supply chain, comprising subcontractors and materials suppliers). Contracts are agreed for the delivery of services by all businesses, alongside other detailed plans aimed at ensuring legal, timely, on-budget and safe delivery of the specified works.

Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must be adequate to build the design provided and must pay amounts that are legally owed. Legal structures integrate design with other activities and enforce financial and other construction processes.

These processes also affect procurement strategies. Clients may, for example, appoint a business to design the project, after which a competitive process is undertaken to appoint a lead contractor to construct the asset (design–bid–build); they may appoint a business to lead both design and construction (design-build); or they may directly appoint a designer, contractor and specialist subcontractors (construction management).[16] Some forms of procurement emphasize collaborative relationships (partnering, alliancing) between the client, the contractor, and other stakeholders within a construction project, seeking to ameliorate often highly competitive and adversarial industry practices. DfMA (design for manufacture and assembly) approaches also emphasize early collaboration with manufacturers and suppliers regarding products and components.

Construction or refurbishment work in a "live" environment (where residents or businesses remain living in or operating on the site) requires particular care, planning and communication.[17]

Planning

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Digging the foundation for a building construction in Jakarta, Indonesia

When applicable, a proposed construction project must comply with local land-use planning policies including zoning and building code requirements. A project will normally be assessed (by the 'authority having jurisdiction', AHJ, typically the municipality where the project will be located) for its potential impacts on neighbouring properties, and upon existing infrastructure (transportation, social infrastructure, and utilities including water supply, sewerage, electricity, telecommunications, etc.). Data may be gathered through site analysis, site surveys and geotechnical investigations. Construction normally cannot start until planning permission has been granted, and may require preparatory work to ensure relevant infrastructure has been upgraded before building work can commence. Preparatory works will also include surveys of existing utility lines to avoid damage-causing outages and other hazardous situations.

Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent indisputably bad phenomena, e.g. explosions or bridge collapses. Other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum considerations, or factors that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses from a business district or residences from a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will not cause a collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community).[18]

During the construction of a building, a municipal building inspector usually inspects the ongoing work periodically to ensure that construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete, any later changes made to a building or other asset that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire protection, usually require municipality approval.

Finance

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Depending on the type of project, mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers may participate in creating an overall plan for the financial management of a construction project. The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Professionals including cost engineers, estimators and quantity surveyors apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation.

Financial planning ensures adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place before the project is started, and ensures that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project. Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems.[19] Underbids happen when builders ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials; such problems may arise even when the overall budget is adequate, presenting a temporary issue. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or project changes that increased costs, which are not subject to competition from other firms as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.[20] Fraud is also an issue of growing significance within construction.[21]

Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual cost estimate performed by a building estimator. As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carry forward. Public–private partnerships (PPPs) or private finance initiatives (PFIs) may also be used to help deliver major projects. According to McKinsey in 2019, the "vast majority of large construction projects go over budget and take 20% longer than expected".[22]

[edit]
Construction along Ontario Highway 401, widening the road from six to twelve travel lanes

A construction project is a complex net of construction contracts and other legal obligations, each of which all parties must carefully consider. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, and provides structures to manage issues. For example, construction delays can be costly, so construction contracts set out clear expectations and clear paths to manage delays. Poorly drafted contracts can lead to confusion and costly disputes.

At the start of a project, legal advisors seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structures, and to present options for preventing problems. During projects, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project.

Apartment complex under construction in Daegu, South Korea

Procurement

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Traditional or Design-bid-build

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Design-bid-build is the most common and well-established method of construction procurement. In this arrangement, the architect, engineer or builder acts for the client as the project coordinator. They design the works, prepare specifications and design deliverables (models, drawings, etc.), administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. In parallel, there are direct contractual links between the client and the main contractor, who, in turn, has direct contractual relationships with subcontractors. The arrangement continues until the project is ready for handover.

Design-build

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Design-build became more common from the late 20th century, and involves the client contracting a single entity to provide design and construction. In some cases, the design-build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents. Typically, the client invites several Design & Build (D&B) contractors to submit proposals to meet the project brief and then selects a preferred supplier. Often this will be a consortium involving a design firm and a contractor (sometimes more than one of each). In the United States, departments of transportation usually use design-build contracts as a way of progressing projects where states lack the skills or resources, particularly for very large projects.[23]

Construction management

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In a construction management arrangement, the client enters into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), a construction manager, and individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together. This approach is often used to speed up procurement processes, to allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, to enable the appointment of individual work contractors, to separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.

Design

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In the industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. Most commonly (i.e.: in a design-bid-build project), the design team is employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Depending upon the type of project, a design team may include architects, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. A 'lead designer' will normally be identified to help coordinate different disciplinary inputs to the overall design. This may be aided by integration of previously separate disciplines (often undertaken by separate firms) into multi-disciplinary firms with experts from all related fields,[24] or by firms establishing relationships to support design-build processes.

The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of a project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the asset as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. For buildings, building engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.

Traditionally, design has involved the production of sketches, architectural and engineering drawings, and specifications. Until the late 20th century, drawings were largely hand-drafted; adoption of computer-aided design (CAD) technologies then improved design productivity, while the 21st-century introduction of building information modeling (BIM) processes has involved the use of computer-generated models that can be used in their own right or to generate drawings and other visualisations as well as capturing non-geometric data about building components and systems.

On some projects, work on-site will not start until design work is largely complete; on others, some design work may be undertaken concurrently with the early stages of on-site activity (for example, work on a building's foundations may commence while designers are still working on the detailed designs of the building's internal spaces). Some projects may include elements that are designed for off-site construction (see also prefabrication and modular building) and are then delivered to the site ready for erection, installation or assembly.

On-site construction

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On-site foundation construction.

Once contractors and other relevant professionals have been appointed and designs are sufficiently advanced, work may commence on the project site. Typically, a construction site will include a secure perimeter to restrict unauthorised access, site access control points, office and welfare accommodation for personnel from the main contractor and other firms involved in the project team, and storage areas for materials, machinery and equipment. According to the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction's definition, construction may be said to have started when the first feature of the permanent structure has been put in place, such as pile driving, or the pouring of slabs or footings.[25]

Commissioning and handover

[edit]

Commissioning is the process of verifying that all subsystems of a new building (or other assets) work as intended to achieve the owner's project requirements and as designed by the project's architects and engineers.

Defects liability period

[edit]

A period after handover (or practical completion) during which the owner may identify any shortcomings in relation to the building specification ('defects'), with a view to the contractor correcting the defect.[26]

Maintenance, repair and improvement

[edit]

Maintenance involves functional checks, servicing, repairing or replacing of necessary devices, equipment, machinery, building infrastructure, and supporting utilities in industrial, business, governmental, and residential installations.[27][28]

Demolition

[edit]

Demolition is the discipline of safely and efficiently tearing down buildings and other artificial structures. Demolition contrasts with deconstruction, which involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving valuable elements for reuse purposes (recycling – see also circular economy).

Industry scale and characteristics

[edit]

Economic activity

[edit]
Helicopter view of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Operations Support Facility (OSF) construction site

The output of the global construction industry was worth an estimated $10.8 trillion in 2017, and in 2018 was forecast to rise to $12.9 trillion by 2022,[29] and to around $14.8 trillion in 2030.[3] As a sector, construction accounts for more than 10% of global GDP (in developed countries, construction comprises 6–9% of GDP),[30] and employs around 7% of the total employed workforce around the globe[31] (accounting for over 273 million full- and part-time jobs in 2014).[32] Since 2010,[33] China has been the world's largest single construction market.[34] The United States is the second largest construction market with a 2018 output of $1.581 trillion.[35]

  • In the United States in February 2020, around $1.4 trillion worth of construction work was in progress, according to the Census Bureau, of which just over $1.0 trillion was for the private sector (split roughly 55:45% between residential and nonresidential); the remainder was public sector, predominantly for state and local government.[36]
  • In Armenia, the construction sector experienced growth during the latter part of 2000s. Based on National Statistical Service, Armenia's construction sector generated approximately 20% of Armenia's GDP during the first and second quarters of 2007. In 2009, according to the World Bank, 30% of Armenia's economy was from construction sector.[37]
  • In Vietnam, the construction industry plays an important role in the national economy.[38][39][40] The Vietnamese construction industry has been one of the fastest growing in the Asia-Pacific region in recent years.[41][42] The market was valued at nearly $60 billion in 2021.[43] In the first half of 2022, Vietnam's construction industry growth rate reached 5.59%.[43][44][45] In 2022, Vietnam's construction industry accounted for more than 6% of the country's GDP, equivalent to over 589.7 billion Vietnamese dong.[46][47] The industry of industry and construction accounts for 38.26% of Vietnam's GDP.[48][49][50] At the same time, the industry is one of the most attractive industries for foreign direct investment (FDI) in recent years.[51][52][53]

Construction is a major source of employment in most countries; high reliance on small businesses, and under-representation of women are common traits. For example:

  • In the US, construction employed around 11.4m people in 2020, with a further 1.8m employed in architectural, engineering, and related professional services – equivalent to just over 8% of the total US workforce.[54] The construction workers were employed in over 843,000 organisations, of which 838,000 were privately held businesses.[55] In March 2016, 60.4% of construction workers were employed by businesses with fewer than 50 staff.[56] Women are substantially underrepresented (relative to their share of total employment), comprising 10.3% of the US construction workforce, and 25.9% of professional services workers, in 2019.[54]
  • The United Kingdom construction sector contributed £117 billion (6%) to UK GDP in 2018, and in 2019 employed 2.4m workers (6.6% of all jobs). These worked either for 343,000 'registered' construction businesses, or for 'unregistered' businesses, typically self-employed contractors;[57] just over one million small/medium-sized businesses, mainly self-employed individuals, worked in the sector in 2019, comprising about 18% of all UK businesses.[58] Women comprised 12.5% of the UK construction workforce.[59]

According to McKinsey research, productivity growth per worker in construction has lagged behind many other industries across different countries including in the United States and in European countries. In the United States, construction productivity per worker has declined by half since the 1960s.[60]

Construction GVA by country

[edit]
List of countries with the largest construction Gross Value Added in 2018
Economy
Construction GVA in 2018 (billions in USD)
(01)  China
 
934.2
(02)  United States
 
839.1
(03)  Japan
 
275.5
(04)  India
 
201.2
(05)  Germany
 
180.5
(06)  United Kingdom
 
154.7
(07)  France
 
138.7
(08)  Canada
 
125.4
(09)  Russia
 
121.2
(10)  Australia
 
111.8
(11)  Indonesia
 
109.7
(12)  South Korea
 
93.0
(13)  Brazil
 
92.6
(14)  Mexico
 
89.0
(15)  Spain
 
80.0
(16)  Italy
 
78.9
(17)  Turkey
 
55.3
(18)  Saudi Arabia
 
40.2
(19)  Netherlands
 
39.5
(20)  Poland
 
39.4
(21)  Switzerland
 
36.3
(22)  United Arab Emirates
 
34.5
(23)  Sweden
 
33.3
(24)  Austria
 
27.2
(25)  Qatar
 
27.0

The twenty-five largest countries in the world by construction GVA (2018)[61]

Employment

[edit]
Ironworkers erecting the steel frame of a new building at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston
A truck operator at Al Gamil, the largest construction company in Djibouti

Some workers may be engaged in manual labour[62] as unskilled or semi-skilled workers; they may be skilled tradespeople; or they may be supervisory or managerial personnel. Under safety legislation in the United Kingdom, for example, construction workers are defined as people "who work for or under the control of a contractor on a construction site";[63] in Canada, this can include people whose work includes ensuring conformance with building codes and regulations, and those who supervise other workers.[64]

Laborers comprise a large grouping in most national construction industries. In the United States, for example, in May 2021 the construction sector employed just over 7.5 million people, of whom just over 820,000 were laborers, while 573,000 were carpenters, 508,000 were electricians, 258,000 were equipment operators and 230,000 were construction managers.[65] Like most business sectors, there is also substantial white-collar employment in construction – 681,000 US workers were recorded by the United States Department of Labor as in 'office and administrative support occupations' in May 2021.[66]

Large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. A project manager normally manages the budget on the job, and a construction manager, design engineer, construction engineer or architect supervises it. Those involved with the design and execution must consider zoning requirements and legal issues, environmental impact of the project, scheduling, budgeting and bidding, construction site safety, availability and transportation of building materials, logistics, and inconvenience to the public, including those caused by construction delays.

Some models and policy-making organisations promote the engagement of local labour in construction projects as a means of tackling social exclusion and addressing skill shortages. In the UK, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation reported in 2000 on 25 projects which had aimed to offer training and employment opportunities for locally based school leavers and unemployed people.[67] The Foundation published "a good practice resource book" in this regard at the same time.[68] Use of local labour and local materials were specified for the construction of the Danish Storebaelt bridge, but there were legal issues which were challenged in court and addressed by the European Court of Justice in 1993. The court held that a contract condition requiring use of local labour and local materials was incompatible with EU treaty principles.[69] Later UK guidance noted that social and employment clauses, where used, must be compatible with relevant EU regulation.[70] Employment of local labour was identified as one of several social issues which could potentially be incorporated in a sustainable procurement approach, although the interdepartmental Sustainable Procurement Group recognised that "there is far less scope to incorporate [such] social issues in public procurement than is the case with environmental issues".[71]

There are many routes to the different careers within the construction industry. There are three main tiers of construction workers based on educational background and training, which vary by country:

Unskilled and semi-skilled workers

[edit]

Unskilled and semi-skilled workers provide general site labor, often have few or no construction qualifications, and may receive basic site training.

Skilled tradespeople

[edit]

Skilled tradespeople have typically served apprenticeships (sometimes in labor unions) or received technical training; this group also includes on-site managers who possess extensive knowledge and experience in their craft or profession. Skilled manual occupations include carpenters, electricians, plumbers, ironworkers, heavy equipment operators and masons, as well as those involved in project management. In the UK these require further education qualifications, often in vocational subject areas, undertaken either directly after completing compulsory education or through "on the job" apprenticeships.[72]

Professional, technical or managerial personnel

[edit]

Professional, technical and managerial personnel often have higher education qualifications, usually graduate degrees, and are trained to design and manage construction processes. These roles require more training as they demand greater technical knowledge, and involve more legal responsibility. Example roles (and qualification routes) include:

  • Architect – Will usually have studied architecture to degree level, and then undertaken further study and gained professional experience. In many countries, the title of "architect" is protected by law, strictly limiting its use to qualified people.
  • Civil engineer – Typically holds a degree in a related subject and may only be eligible for membership of a professional institution (such as the UK's ICE) following completion of additional training and experience. In some jurisdictions, a new university graduate must hold a master's degree to become chartered,[a] and persons with bachelor's degrees may become Incorporated Engineers.
  • Building services engineer – May also be referred to as an "M&E" or "mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) engineer" and typically holds a degree in mechanical or electrical engineering.[a]
  • Project manager – Typically holds a 4-year or greater higher education qualification, but are often also qualified in another field such as architecture, civil engineering or quantity surveying.
  • Structural engineer – Typically holds a bachelor's or master's degree in structural engineering.[a]
  • Quantity surveyor – Typically holds a bachelor's degree in quantity surveying. UK chartered status is gained from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors.

Safety

[edit]
At-risk workers without appropriate safety equipment

Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European Union.[4][73] In the US in 2019, 1,061, or about 20%, of worker fatalities in private industry occurred in construction.[4] In 2017, more than a third of US construction fatalities (366 out of 971 total fatalities) were the result of falls;[74] in the UK, half of the average 36 fatalities per annum over a five-year period to 2021 were attributed to falls from height.[75] Proper safety equipment such as harnesses, hard hats and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry.[76] Other major causes of fatalities in the construction industry include electrocution, transportation accidents, and trench cave-ins.[77]

Other safety risks for workers in construction include hearing loss due to high noise exposure, musculoskeletal injury, chemical exposure, and high levels of stress.[78] Besides that, the high turnover of workers in construction industry imposes a huge challenge of accomplishing the restructuring of work practices in individual workplaces or with individual workers.[citation needed] Construction has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.[79][80] A study conducted in 2022 found “significant effect of air pollution exposure on construction-related injuries and fatalities”, especially with the exposure of nitrogen dioxide.[81]

Sustainability

[edit]

Sustainability is an aspect of "green building", defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as "the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction."[82]

Decarbonising construction

[edit]

The construction industry may require transformation at pace and at scale if it is to successfully contribute to achieving the target set out in The Paris Agreement of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5C above industrial levels.[83][84] The World Green Building Council has stated the buildings and infrastructure around the world can reach 40% less embodied carbon emissions but that this can only be achieved through urgent transformation.[85][86]

Conclusions from industry leaders have suggested that the net zero transformation is likely to be challenging for the construction industry, but it does present an opportunity. Action is demanded from governments, standards bodies, the construction sector, and the engineering profession to meet the decarbonising targets.[87]

In 2021, the National Engineering Policy Centre published its report Decarbonising Construction: Building a new net zero industry,[87] which outlined key areas to decarbonise the construction sector and the wider built environment. This report set out around 20 different recommendations to transform and decarbonise the construction sector, including recommendations for engineers, the construction industry and decision makers, plus outlined six-overarching ‘system levers’ where action taken now will result in rapid decarbonisation of the construction sector.[87] These levels are:

  • Setting and stipulating progressive targets for carbon reduction
  • Embedding quantitative whole-life carbon assessment into public procurement
  • Increasing design efficiency, materials reuse and retrofit of buildings
  • Improving whole-life carbon performance
  • Improving skills for net zero
  • Adopting a joined up, systems approach to decarbonisation across the construction sector and with other sectors

Progress is being made internationally to decarbonise the sector including improvements to sustainable procurement practice such as the CO2 performance ladder in the Netherlands and the Danish Partnership for Green Public Procurement.[88][89] There are also now demonstrations of applying the principles of circular economy practices in practice such as Circl, ABN AMRO's sustainable pavilion and the Brighton Waste House.[90][91][92]

See also

[edit]
  • Agile construction – Management system in the construction industry
  • Building material – Material which is used for construction purposes
  • Civil engineering – Engineering discipline focused on physical infrastructure
  • Commissioning (construction) – Process to ensure that all building systems perform according to the "Design Intent"
  • Environmental impact of concrete
  • Impervious surface – Artificial structures such as pavements covered with water-tight materials
  • Index of construction articles
  • Land degradation – Gradual destruction of land
  • List of tallest structures
  • List of tallest structures built before the 20th century
  • Modern methods of construction
  • Outline of construction – Overview of and topical guide to construction
  • Real estate development – Process that creates or renovates new or existing spaces
  • Structural robustness – Ability of a structure to withstand physical strain
  • Umarell – Bolognese slang term

icon Architecture portal icon Engineering portal

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c In the UK, the Chartered Engineer qualification is controlled by the Engineering Council, and is often achieved through membership of the relevant professional institution (ICE, CIBSE, IStructE, etc).

References

[edit]
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High-density polyethylene pipe installation in a storm drain project, Mexico.

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an area with excess water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils can prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic conditions that harm root growth), but many soils need artificial drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies.

History

[edit]

Early history

[edit]
Remains of a drain at Lothal circa 3000 BC

The Indus Valley Civilization had sewerage and drainage systems. All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered gravity sewers, which lined the major streets.[1]

18th and 19th century

[edit]
Tank Stream, a historical drain in the City of Sydney, Australia

The invention of hollow-pipe drainage is credited to Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who died in 1753.[2]

Current practices

[edit]

Geotextiles

[edit]

New storm water drainage systems incorporate geotextile filters that retain and prevent fine grains of soil from passing into and clogging the drain. Geotextiles are synthetic textile fabrics specially manufactured for civil and environmental engineering applications. Geotextiles are designed to retain fine soil particles while allowing water to pass through. In a typical drainage system, they would be laid along a trench which would then be filled with coarse granular material: gravel, sea shells, stone or rock. The geotextile is then folded over the top of the stone and the trench is then covered by soil. Groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flows through the stone to an outfell. In high groundwater conditions a perforated plastic (PVC or PE) pipe is laid along the base of the drain to increase the volume of water transported in the drain.

Alternatively, a prefabricated plastic drainage system made of HDPE, often incorporating geotextile, coco fiber or rag filters can be considered. The use of these materials has become increasingly more common due to their ease of use, since they eliminate the need for transporting and laying stone drainage aggregate, which is invariably more expensive than a synthetic drain and concrete liners.

Over the past 30 years, geotextile, PVC filters, and HDPE filters have become the most commonly used soil filter media. They are cheap to produce and easy to lay, with factory controlled properties that ensure long term filtration performance even in fine silty soil conditions.

21st century alternatives

[edit]

Seattle's Public Utilities created a pilot program called Street Edge Alternatives Project. The project focuses on designing a system "to provide drainage that more closely mimics the natural landscape prior to development than traditional piped systems".[3] The streets are characterized by ditches along the side of the roadway, with plantings designed throughout the area. An emphasis on non-curbed sidewalks allows water to flow more freely into the areas of permeable surface on the side of the streets. Because of the plantings, the run off water from the urban area does not all directly go into the ground, but can also be absorbed into the surrounding environment. Monitoring conducted by Seattle Public Utilities reports a 99 percent reduction of storm water leaving the drainage project.[3]

Drainage has undergone a large-scale environmental review in the recent past[when?] in the United Kingdom. Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) are designed to encourage contractors to install drainage system that more closely mimic the natural flow of water in nature. Since 2010 local and neighbourhood planning in the UK is required by law to factor SUDS into any development projects that they are responsible for.

Slot drainage is a channel drainage system designed to eliminate the need for further pipework systems to be installed in parallel to the drainage, reducing the environmental impact of production as well as improving water collection. Stainless steel, concrete channel, PVC and HDPE are all materials available for slot drainage which have become industry standards on construction projects.

In the construction industry

[edit]

The civil engineer is responsible for drainage in construction projects. During the construction process, they set out all the necessary levels for roads, street gutters, drainage, culverts and sewers involved in construction operations.

Civil engineers and construction managers work alongside architects and supervisors, planners, quantity surveyors, and the general workforce, as well as subcontractors. Typically, most jurisdictions have some body of drainage law to govern to what degree a landowner can alter the drainage from their parcel.

Drainage options for the construction industry include:

  • Point drainage, which intercepts water at gullies (points). Gullies connect to drainage pipes beneath the ground surface, so deep excavation is required to facilitate this system. Support for deep trenches is required in the shape of planking, strutting or shoring.
  • Channel drainage, which intercepts water along the entire run of the channel. Channel drainage is typically manufactured from concrete, steel, polymer or composites. The interception rate of channel drainage is greater than point drainage and the excavation required is usually much less deep.

The surface opening of channel drainage usually comes in the form of gratings (polymer, plastic, steel or iron) or a single slot (slot drain) that run along the ground surface (typically manufactured from steel or iron).

In retaining walls

[edit]

Earth retaining structures such as retaining walls also need to have groundwater drainage considered during their construction. Typical retaining walls are constructed of impermeable material, which can block the path of groundwater. When groundwater flow is obstructed, hydrostatic water pressure buildups against the wall and may cause significant damage. If the water pressure is not drained appropriately, retaining walls can bow, move, and fracture, causing seams to separate. The water pressure can also erode soil particles, leading to voids behind the wall and sinkholes in the above soil. Traditional retaining wall drainage systems can include French drains, drain pipes or weep holes. To prevent soil erosion, geotextile filter fabrics are installed with the drainage system.

In planters

[edit]

Drainage in planters refers to the implementation of effective drainage systems specifically designed for plant containers or pots. Proper drainage is crucial in planters to prevent waterlogging and promote healthy plant growth. Planter Drainage involves the incorporation of drainage holes, drainage layers, or specialized drainage systems to ensure excess water can escape from the planter. This helps to prevent root rot, water accumulation, and other issues that can negatively impact plant health. By providing adequate drainage in planters, it supports optimal plant growth and contributes to the overall success of gardening or landscaping projects.[4]

Drainage options for the planter include:

  • Surface drains are typically used to manage runoff from paved surfaces, such as sidewalks and parking lots. Catch basins, which collect water and debris, are connected to underground pipes that carry the water away from the site.[4]
  • Subsurface drains, on the other hand, are designed to manage water that seeps into the soil beneath the planting surface. French drains, which are gravel-filled trenches with perforated pipes at the bottom, are the most common type of subsurface drain. Trench drains, which are similar but shallower and wider, are also used in some situations.[4]

Reasons for artificial drainage

[edit]
An agricultural drainage channel outside Magome, Japan after a heavy rain. Protuberances create turbulent water, preventing sediment from settling in the channel.

Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture. In the northern United States and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes, which gradually filled with humus to make marshes. Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches to make mucklands, which are primarily used for high-value crops such as vegetables.

The world's largest project of this type has been in process for centuries in the Netherlands. The area between Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times, swampland and small lakes. Turf cutting (peat mining), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem. The invention of wind-powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted some of the marginal land drainage. Still, the final drainage of the lake had to await the design of large steam-powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities. The lake was eliminated between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km2 of new land.

Coastal plains and river deltas may have seasonally or permanently high water tables and must have drainage improvements if they are to be used for agriculture. An example is the flatwoods citrus-growing region of Florida, United States. After periods of high rainfall, drainage pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet soils. Rice production requires complete water control, as fields must be flooded or drained at different stages of the crop cycle. The Netherlands has also led the way in this type of drainage by draining lowlands along the shore and pushing back the sea until the original nation has been greatly enlarged.

In moist climates, soils may be adequate for cropping with the exception that they become waterlogged for brief periods each year, from snow melt or from heavy rains. Soils that are predominantly clay will pass water very slowly downward. Meanwhile, plant roots suffocate because the excessive water around the roots eliminates air movement through the soil.

Other soils may have an impervious layer of mineralized soil, called a hardpan, or relatively impervious rock layers may underlie shallow soils. Drainage is especially important in tree fruit production. Soils that are otherwise excellent may be waterlogged for a week of the year, which is sufficient to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of the land until replacements can be established. In each of these cases, appropriate drainage carries off temporary flushes of water to prevent damage to annual or perennial crops.

Drier areas are often farmed by irrigation, and one would not consider drainage necessary. However, irrigation water always contains minerals and salts, which can be concentrated to toxic levels by evapotranspiration. Irrigated land may need periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and drainage to control soil salinity.

A typical drain in Bankstown, New South Wales
 
A typical drain in Bankstown, New South Wales, Australia

See also

[edit]
  • Surface drainage of the land
    • Drainage system (geomorphology), pattern of natural drains, streams, rivers, etc.
    • Land drainage in the United Kingdom - a legal and operational term in the UK to define a range of functions and responsibilities of drainage boards.
    • Surface runoff, surface runoff of excess rainfall from the land
    • Drainage system (agriculture), land forming or land shaping to enhance the drainage from the soil surface in agricultural land
    • Contour plowing, controlling runoff and soil erosion
  • Subsurface (groundwater) drainage
    • Horizontal drainage by pipes and ditches
      • Tile drainage
    • Vertical drainage by wells
      • Well drainage
      • Watertable control

Otherwise:

  • Bar ditch
  • Building construction
  • Deep drainage
  • Drain commissioner
  • Drain (plumbing)
  • Drainage basin or watershed
  • Drainage divide or watershed
  • Drainage equation
  • Drainage research
  • Geomorphology
  • Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance
  • Hydrology
  • John Johnston, who introduced land drainage to the United States.
  • Plumbing
    • Potable cold and hot water supply
    • Septic systems
    • Sewage traps, drains, and vents
  • Rain gutter
  • Retaining wall
  • Sewage collection and disposal
  • Soil salinity control by subsurface drainage
  • Storm drain
  • Stormwater
  • Trench drain
  • Trencher (machine)
  • Urban exploration

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Arthur Coterell (1980). The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilisations. Rainbird Publishers. pp. 176–178. ISBN 0-7112-0036-X.
  2. ^ "Broadside eulogy dedicated to Patrick, Earl of Marchmount, Sir Hugh Dalrymple, and others". National Library of Scotland Digital Gallery. 1705. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  3. ^ a b "Street Edge Alternatives (SEA Streets) Project". Seattle.gov. Archived from the original on Dec 5, 2008.
  4. ^ a b c "4 Expert Tips for Perfect Planter Drainage". drainservice.org. 15 April 2023. Archived from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved July 1, 2023.
[edit]
  • Media related to Drainage at Wikimedia Commons
  • The dictionary definition of drainage at Wiktionary

 

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United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Sarah McNeily

(5)

USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.

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Jim de Leon

(5)

It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well. I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths). You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company. The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door). I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!

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Dave Kari

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What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.

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Paul Gunderlock

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The staff was helpful, very nice and easy to work with and completed the work timely and cleaned up well. Communications faltered a bit at times and there was an email communications glitch which was no fault of anyone, but no big deal and all ended up fine. We sure feel better to have this done and hope that is the end of our structural issues. It does seem like (after talking to several related companies), that it would be great if some of these related companies had a structural engineer on staff vs using on the job expertise gained over years - which is definitely valuable! But leaves a bit of uncertainty - and probably saves money for both sides may be the trade-off? So far, so good though! Thank you.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Stair step cracks usually occur due to differential settlement or shifting of the foundation. They can be caused by soil movement, poor drainage, tree roots, or inadequate construction techniques that lead to uneven pressure distribution on the foundation.
The seriousness of stair step cracks depends on their size, location, and whether they are active (continuing to widen). Small hairline cracks may not pose an immediate threat but should be monitored. Larger or growing cracks could indicate significant structural issues requiring professional assessment and repair.
Common repair methods include underpinning to stabilize the foundation, using epoxy injections for crack sealing, installing helical piers or wall anchors for additional support, and improving drainage around the foundation to prevent future soil movement. Consulting a structural engineer is recommended for determining the best repair strategy.