Comparing Different Regional Climate Patterns for Foundation Health

Comparing Different Regional Climate Patterns for Foundation Health

Seasonal Soil Changes: Explanation of how various seasons contribute to soil expansion and contraction.

As the world becomes increasingly aware of the impacts of climate change, understanding how different regional climate patterns affect foundation health is crucial for the construction industry. Foundations are the bedrock upon which structures stand, and their integrity is vital for ensuring the safety and longevity of buildings. Hydraulic cement patches small foundation gaps Foundation Cracks Foundation foundation. Climate-related issues such as temperature fluctuations, precipitation variations, and soil conditions can have significant impacts on foundation performance, influencing both structural stability and maintenance costs.


In regions where temperature extremes are common, foundations face unique challenges.

Comparing Different Regional Climate Patterns for Foundation Health - water

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For example, in colder climates with frequent freeze-thaw cycles, frost heave can cause soil to expand and contract. This constant movement exerts pressure on foundations, leading to cracks and shifts that compromise structural integrity. Conversely, in arid or hot regions where temperatures soar during summer months, soil desiccation can occur. As moisture is drawn out from the ground due to high temperatures, soil volume decreases and can lead to subsidence-a condition where foundations sink unevenly.


Precipitation patterns also play a critical role in determining foundation health across different regions. In areas prone to heavy rainfall or flooding, excessive water can saturate the ground surrounding a foundation. This saturation increases hydrostatic pressure against foundation walls and can lead to water infiltration into basements or lower levels of buildings. Moreover, prolonged exposure to moisture weakens concrete over time and may result in structural damage if not addressed promptly.


On the other hand, regions experiencing prolonged droughts face opposite but equally challenging circumstances. Lack of sufficient groundwater leads to dry soil conditions that might cause shrinkage around foundations. This issue is particularly prevalent in clay-dominant soils which swell when wet but crack significantly during dry spells-resulting in differential settlement problems for structures built on such expansive soils.


Furthermore, coastal areas contend with additional concerns related to rising sea levels and increased salinity intrusion due to climate change-induced oceanic changes. Saltwater corrosion poses a threat not only to steel reinforcements within concrete foundations but also accelerates degradation processes-necessitating more frequent inspections and repairs.


Understanding these various regional climate influences allows engineers and builders alike to design better-suited solutions tailored specifically for each environment's unique demands. Adaptations may include using flexible materials capable of accommodating thermal expansion/contraction cycles effectively; implementing proper drainage systems around building perimeters; selecting suitable waterproofing techniques; employing specialized construction methods designed explicitly for expansive soils management among others-all aimed at mitigating potential risks while ensuring long-term durability regardless of location-specific climatic challenges faced by any given project site globally today!

The stability of building foundations is a critical aspect of structural engineering and construction, directly influenced by the surrounding environmental conditions. Among the various factors that play a role in foundation health, climate patterns-specifically humid versus arid climates-are particularly significant. Understanding how these different climate types affect foundation stability is essential for ensuring the longevity and safety of structures across diverse geographical regions.


Humid climates are characterized by high levels of moisture in the air and frequent precipitation. This abundance of moisture can have several effects on foundation stability. One primary concern is soil saturation, which can lead to increased hydrostatic pressure against basement walls and footings, potentially causing structural deformation or even failure. Furthermore, excessive moisture can lead to soil expansion, particularly in clay-rich soils known for their swelling properties when wet. This expansion exerts additional pressure on foundations, leading to cracks and misalignment over time.


In addition to physical pressure from expanding soils, humid environments often encourage biological growth such as mold and mildew, which can further compromise material integrity if not properly managed. The presence of water can also accelerate chemical reactions that degrade concrete and steel reinforcement within foundations, necessitating careful consideration during material selection and construction phases.


Conversely, arid climates present their own set of challenges for foundation stability. These regions experience low humidity levels and infrequent rainfall, resulting in dry soil conditions that can lead to soil shrinkage. As soils dry out, they contract away from foundation structures-a phenomenon known as subsidence-which may cause settling issues or create voids beneath the foundation. This uneven support can result in cracking or tilting as sections of the structure sink at different rates.


Moreover, arid regions often undergo significant temperature fluctuations between day and night or across seasons. These changes can induce thermal expansion and contraction cycles in both soil and building materials, contributing further to stress on foundations over time.


To mitigate these risks associated with both humid and arid climates, engineers must adopt tailored strategies based on regional climate characteristics. In humid areas, effective drainage systems are crucial to manage excess water around foundations while selecting materials resistant to moisture-induced degradation is imperative for long-term durability. For instance, waterproof coatings or sealants may be applied to protect concrete surfaces from water infiltration.


In contrast, construction in arid regions may benefit from techniques designed to maintain consistent soil moisture levels around foundations through controlled irrigation practices or using non-shrinkable fill materials beneath footings to prevent settlement problems caused by drying soils.


Ultimately, understanding the interplay between climatic conditions-be it humidity-driven expansion pressures or aridity-related subsidence-and foundation health enables architects and engineers to design resilient structures capable of withstanding environmental stresses unique to each region's climate pattern. By integrating this knowledge into planning processes early on-alongside regular maintenance regimes throughout a building's lifespan-we ensure foundational stability remains robust despite nature's variability across our world's diverse landscapes.

Evaluating Crack Types to Prevent Long-Term Structural Issues

Evaluating Crack Types to Prevent Long-Term Structural Issues

Cracks in structures are more than just an aesthetic concern; they can be harbingers of deeper, long-term structural issues.. Evaluating crack types to prevent these potential problems is crucial for maintaining the integrity and safety of buildings and infrastructure.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Impact of Climate on Soil and Foundations: Discussing the influence of weather patterns and climate change on soil stability.

The health and stability of a building's foundation are paramount to its longevity and safety. An often-overlooked factor that plays a critical role in the integrity of foundations is the seasonal variation in temperature. These fluctuations can significantly impact different regions, leading to varying degrees of foundation stress and potential cracking. Comparing regional climate patterns offers valuable insights into how these variations affect foundation health.


In temperate climates, where four distinct seasons are experienced, foundations are subjected to a wide range of temperatures throughout the year. In winter, freezing temperatures can lead to frost heave-a phenomenon where water in the soil freezes, expands, and exerts upward pressure on the foundation. As spring approaches and temperatures rise, thawing occurs, causing the soil to settle back down. This constant cycle of expansion and contraction can create cracks in the foundation over time if not properly managed during construction or through maintenance efforts.


Conversely, arid regions experience less dramatic temperature swings but face their own unique challenges.

Comparing Different Regional Climate Patterns for Foundation Health - wall

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The lack of moisture combined with high summer temperatures can cause soil desiccation-where clay-rich soils shrink as they dry out-leading to subsidence and uneven support for foundations. While such areas might appear less vulnerable due to reduced frost action, they require careful consideration of soil composition and moisture levels to prevent damage from occurring through these mechanisms.


Tropical climates present another scenario entirely. Here, high humidity levels combined with relatively stable year-round temperatures may initially seem benign for foundation health. However, heavy rainfall during certain seasons can lead to waterlogging around structures if drainage systems are inadequate or poorly maintained. This excess water can soften supporting soils or cause them to wash away entirely, undermining foundational stability just as severely as freezing conditions elsewhere.


Regions prone to rapid temperature changes within short periods face additional risks due to thermal expansion and contraction stresses on construction materials themselves-not just the surrounding soil conditions-which necessitates using materials capable of handling such dynamic shifts without degrading.


Comparative analysis across these varied climatic contexts underscores that while all buildings must contend with environmental stressors over time, understanding specific regional patterns is crucial for designing resilient structures tailored accordingly. Whether it's implementing proper insulation techniques against frost heave or ensuring effective drainage systems in areas subjecting structures regularly inundated by tropical rains-each strategy must be informed by an intimate knowledge of local weather trends coupled with sound engineering principles.


Ultimately, addressing seasonal temperature variations requires both foresight at design stages alongside vigilant ongoing maintenance practices throughout any structure's lifespan regardless of its geographic location; doing so ensures that our built environment remains secure against nature's relentless cyclical forces over time while safeguarding human habitation within them effectively long-term too!

Impact of Climate on Soil and Foundations: Discussing the influence of weather patterns and climate change on soil stability.

Methods for Monitoring Soil Movement: Techniques and tools used to track soil shifts around foundations.

When we consider the health and longevity of building foundations, it's crucial to delve into the intricate relationship between soil types across various regions and the climate patterns that influence them. Foundations are literally and figuratively the bedrock of structural integrity, yet they are highly susceptible to the whims of nature. Understanding how different regional climates impact these structures requires a keen examination of both soil characteristics and climatic variances.


Firstly, soils vary widely from one region to another, each with its own unique properties that affect how structures are supported. For example, clay-rich soils found in humid regions tend to retain water, leading to significant expansion and contraction as moisture levels change. This can result in uneven settling or even cracking of foundations if not properly managed. Conversely, sandy soils prevalent in arid climates drain water quickly but may lack cohesion, potentially leading to instability under heavy loads.


The climate plays a pivotal role in exacerbating or mitigating these soil behaviors. In regions with pronounced wet and dry seasons, such as parts of Africa or India, soil undergoes repeated cycles of swelling and shrinking. This constant movement can stress foundation materials over time if they're not designed with these fluctuations in mind. In contrast, temperate regions with stable weather patterns generally pose fewer challenges for foundation health due to more consistent moisture levels.


Moreover, extreme temperature variations-common in continental climates-can lead to frost heave when water-laden soils freeze and expand during winter months. This phenomenon can lift foundations unevenly, causing serious structural issues unless preventative measures like deeper footings or insulated slabs are implemented.


In coastal areas where saltwater intrusion is a concern, corrosive effects on concrete and steel elements within foundations add another layer of complexity. Here again, understanding the local climate's role-such as frequency and intensity of storms-is vital for designing resilient structures.


Ultimately, comparing different regional climate patterns highlights the importance of site-specific analysis when planning construction projects. Engineers must account for both current conditions and potential changes in climate that might alter soil behavior over time. By doing so, they ensure that foundations remain robust against an array of environmental stresses.


In conclusion, examining soil types across various regions reveals how deeply intertwined they are with local climate conditions concerning foundation performance. As global weather patterns continue to shift due to climate change, this knowledge becomes even more critical for future-proofing our built environment against unpredictable natural forces. Understanding these dynamics allows us to build more durable structures capable of standing firm despite nature's ever-changing face.

Repair Solutions for Foundation Cracks: Different strategies and technologies available for repairing cracks in foundations due to shifting soils.

The integrity of a building's foundation is crucial for its overall stability and safety. However, climate factors can significantly impact the structural health of foundations across different regions. Understanding these impacts requires examining case studies from various locales to highlight how regional climate patterns contribute to foundation crack repairs.


In arid regions, such as parts of the Southwestern United States, soil desiccation during prolonged dry spells poses a substantial threat to foundations. The clay-rich soils prevalent in these areas are prone to shrinkage when moisture levels drop. This contraction creates voids beneath foundations, leading to cracks as the structure settles unevenly. A notable example is Phoenix, Arizona, where homeowners frequently encounter foundation issues due to extended drought periods. Repair strategies often involve injecting moisture-retaining materials into the soil or installing root barriers to prevent further damage.


Conversely, in humid and subtropical climates like those found in Louisiana or Florida, excessive moisture and flooding are common concerns. High water tables and persistent rain can cause soil swelling and erosion around foundations. In New Orleans, for instance, homes built on expansive clay face frequent foundation upheavals due to heavy rainfall saturating the ground. Solutions here typically include enhancing drainage systems around properties or using piering techniques to stabilize shifting structures.


Cold climates introduce another set of challenges for foundation health. In regions such as Minnesota or Canada's northern territories, freeze-thaw cycles can be particularly damaging. When water within the soil freezes, it expands and exerts pressure on foundation walls-a process known as frost heave. As temperatures rise again, thawing leads to contraction and potential cracking of the concrete. Case studies from Minneapolis reveal that insulating the perimeter of a home's foundation can mitigate these effects by maintaining consistent ground temperatures year-round.


Moreover, coastal areas face unique threats due to their proximity to both oceanic influences and fluctuating weather conditions. Saltwater intrusion combined with seasonal hurricanes intensifies corrosion in reinforced concrete foundations along shorelines like those in Miami or Galveston. Here, regular inspections and maintenance are critical; employing corrosion-resistant materials during construction has proven effective at extending the lifespan of affected structures.


These regional examples underscore that while climate factors differ markedly across geographies, their impact on foundation integrity is universally significant. Effective management relies on understanding local environmental conditions and implementing tailored repair strategies accordingly. By studying diverse cases globally, engineers and builders can develop more resilient construction practices that account for varying climate-induced stressors-ultimately safeguarding our built environment against nature's unpredictability.


In conclusion, comparing different regional climate patterns offers invaluable insights into maintaining foundation health under diverse environmental pressures. Whether dealing with drought-induced soil shrinkage in arid zones or combating frost heave in frigid areas, proactive measures rooted in localized knowledge will continue playing a vital role in preventing costly damages resulting from climatic influences on building foundations worldwide.

Preventative Measures: Tips for homeowners to minimize the risk of foundation damage from seasonal soil changes.

Climate change is a global phenomenon with localized impacts, particularly on infrastructure such as building foundations. The interplay between regional climate patterns and foundation health necessitates tailored strategies for mitigating damage. Understanding these regional variances is crucial in devising effective solutions to protect our built environment.


In arid regions, the primary concern for foundation health stems from soil desiccation. As temperatures rise and precipitation decreases, soils can shrink significantly, leading to subsidence and cracking of foundations. To combat this, strategies such as maintaining consistent moisture levels around the foundation are recommended. Installing soaker hoses or drip irrigation systems can help stabilize soil moisture content, reducing the risk of shrinkage.


Conversely, regions experiencing increased rainfall due to climate change face issues of soil swelling and erosion.

Comparing Different Regional Climate Patterns for Foundation Health - water

    In these areas, excess water can lead to hydrostatic pressure against foundation walls or cause the ground to become overly saturated and lose its load-bearing capacity. Mitigation strategies here include improving drainage systems around buildings. French drains or sump pumps can be installed to divert water away from foundations, while grading the landscape ensures that surface water flows away rather than towards structures.


    Cold-climate regions face unique challenges from freeze-thaw cycles exacerbated by warming trends that introduce more frequent temperature fluctuations around freezing points. This can lead to frost heave-where expanding ice within the soil pushes up against foundations-and subsequent thaw weakening the structure's support. Insulating the ground around a building's perimeter with rigid foam insulation boards can moderate soil temperatures and reduce frost penetration depth.


    Tropical regions are not exempt from climate-induced foundation issues either; they primarily contend with rising sea levels and increased storm intensity causing flooding and coastal erosion. Here, elevating buildings on pilings or stilts becomes a viable strategy for minimizing flood impact on foundations. Additionally, employing durable construction materials that resist water damage further protects against structural degradation over time.


    While each region has its distinct challenges posed by changing climate patterns, common themes emerge in mitigation strategies: maintaining stable moisture conditions, enhancing drainage capabilities, insulating against temperature extremes, and using resilient construction practices. By adopting a region-specific approach informed by local climate dynamics, we can safeguard our infrastructure against future uncertainties posed by climate change.


    Ultimately, collaboration between scientists, engineers, urban planners, and policymakers will be essential in developing comprehensive strategies that address both current vulnerabilities and anticipate future climatic shifts. Through such concerted efforts at regional levels worldwide, we can better ensure the longevity and safety of our foundational structures amidst an ever-changing climate landscape.

     

    Great Wall of China - Western Wall
    Hadrian's Wall - Walls of Ston

    A wall is a structure and a surface that defines an area; carries a load; provides security, shelter, or soundproofing; or, is decorative. There are many kinds of walls, including:

    • Border barriers between countries
    • Brick walls
    • Defensive walls in fortifications
    • Permanent, solid fences
    • Retaining walls, which hold back dirt, stone, water, or noise sound
    • Stone walls
    • Walls in buildings that form a fundamental part of the superstructure or separate interior rooms, sometimes for fire safety
    • Glass walls in which the primary structure is made of glass; does not include openings within walls that have glass coverings as these are windows
    • Walls that protect from oceans (seawalls) or rivers (levees)

    Etymology

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    "weall," an Old English word for 'wall'

    The term wall comes from the Latin vallum meaning "an earthen wall or rampart set with palisades, a row or line of stakes, a wall, a rampart, fortification", while the Latin word murus means a defensive stone wall.[1] English uses the same word to mean an external wall and the internal sides of a room, but this is not universal. Many languages distinguish between the two. In German, some of this distinction can be seen between Wand and Mauer, in Spanish between pared and muro.

    Defensive wall

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    The word wall originally referred to defensive walls and ramparts.

    Building wall

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    The purposes of walls in buildings are to support roofs, floors and ceilings; to enclose a space as part of the building envelope along with a roof to give buildings form; and to provide shelter and security. In addition, the wall may house various types of utilities such as electrical wiring or plumbing. Wall construction falls into two basic categories: framed walls or mass-walls. In framed walls the load is transferred to the foundation through posts, columns or studs. Framed walls most often have three or more separate components: the structural elements (such as 2×4 studs in a house wall), insulation, and finish elements or surfaces (such as drywall or panelling). Mass-walls are of a solid material including masonry, concrete including slipform stonemasonry, log building, cordwood construction, adobe, rammed earth, cob, earthbag construction, bottles, tin cans, straw-bale construction, and ice. Walls may or may not be leadbearing. Walls are required to conform to the local building and/or fire codes.

    There are three basic methods walls control water intrusion: moisture storage, drained cladding, or face-sealed cladding.[2] Moisture storage is typical of stone and brick mass-wall buildings where moisture is absorbed and released by the walls of the structure itself. Drained cladding also known as screened walls[3] acknowledges moisture will penetrate the cladding so a moisture barrier such as housewrap or felt paper inside the cladding provides a second line of defense and sometimes a drainage plane or air gap allows a path for the moisture to drain down through and exit the wall. Sometimes ventilation is provided in addition to the drainage plane such as in rainscreen construction. Face-sealed also called barrier wall or perfect barrier[3] cladding relies on maintaining a leak-free surface of the cladding. Examples of face sealed cladding are the early exterior insulation finishing systems, structural glazing, metal clad panels, and corrugated metal.

    Building walls frequently become works of art, externally and internally, such as when featuring mosaic work or when murals are painted on them; or as design foci when they exhibit textures or painted finishes for effect.

    Curtain wall

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    Wall art in Budapest's Széll Kálmán Square.[4]
    Glass curtain walls on a contemporary German skyscraper

    In architecture and civil engineering, curtain wall refers to a building facade that is not load-bearing but provides decoration, finish, front, face, or historical preservation.

    Precast wall

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    Precast walls are walls which have been manufactured in a factory and then shipped to where it is needed, ready to install. It is faster to install compared to brick and other walls and may have a lower cost compared to other types of wall. Precast walls are cost effective compare to Brick Wall compound wall.

    Mullion wall

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    Mullion walls are a structural system that carries the load of the floor slab on prefabricated panels around the perimeter.

    Partition wall

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    Glass partition walls

    A partition wall is a usually thin wall that is used to separate or divide a room, primarily a pre-existing one. Partition walls are usually not load-bearing, and can be constructed out of many materials, including steel panels, bricks, cloth, plastic, plasterboard, wood, blocks of clay, terracotta, concrete, and glass.

    Some partition walls are made of sheet glass. Glass partition walls are a series of individual toughened glass panels mounted in wood or metal framing. They may be suspended from or slide along a robust aluminium ceiling track.[5] The system does not require the use of a floor guide, which allows easy operation and an uninterrupted threshold.

    A timber partition consists of a wooden framework, supported on the floor or by side walls. Metal lath and plaster, properly laid, forms a reinforced partition wall. Partition walls constructed from fibre cement backer board are popular as bases for tiling in kitchens or in wet areas like bathrooms. Galvanized sheet fixed to wooden or steel members are mostly adopted in works of temporary character. Plain or reinforced partition walls may also be constructed from concrete, including pre-cast concrete blocks. Metal framed partitioning is also available. This partition consists of track (used primarily at the base and head of the partition) and studs (vertical sections fixed into the track typically spaced at 24", 16", or at 12").

    Internal wall partitions, also known as office partitioning, are usually made of plasterboard (drywall) or varieties of glass. Toughened glass is a common option, as low-iron glass (better known as opti-white glass) increases light and solar heat transmission.

    Wall partitions are constructed using beads and tracking that is either hung from the ceiling or fixed into the ground.[6] The panels are inserted into the tracking and fixed. Some wall partition variations specify their fire resistance and acoustic performance rating.

    Movable partitions

    Movable partitions are walls that open to join two or more rooms into one large floor area. These include:

    • Sliding—a series of panels that slide in tracks fixed to the floor and ceiling, similar sliding doors
    • Sliding and folding doors —similar to sliding folding doors, these are good for smaller spans
    • Folding partition walls - a series of interlocking panels suspended from an overhead track that when extended provide an acoustical separation, and when retracted stack against a wall, ceiling, closet, or ceiling pocket.
    • Screens—usually constructed of a metal or timber frame fixed with plywood and chipboard and supported with legs for free standing and easy movement
    • Pipe and drape—fixed or telescopic uprights and horizontals provide a ground supported drape system with removable panels.

    Party wall

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    Party walls are walls that separate buildings or units within a building. They provide fire resistance and sound resistance between occupants in a building. The minimum fire resistance and sound resistance required for the party wall is determined by a building code and may be modified to suit a variety of situations. Ownership of such walls can become a legal issue. It is not a load-bearing wall and may be owned by different people.

    Infill wall

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    An infill wall is the supported wall that closes the perimeter of a building constructed with a three-dimensional framework structure.

    Fire wall

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    Fire walls resist spread of fire within or sometimes between structures to provide passive fire protection. A delay in the spread of fire gives occupants more time to escape and fire fighters more time to extinguish the fire. Some fire walls allow fire resistive window assemblies,[7] and are made of non-combustible material such as concrete, cement block, brick, or fire rated drywall. Wall penetrations are sealed with fire resistive materials. A doorway in a firewall must have a rated fire door. Fire walls provide varying resistance to the spread of fire, (e.g., one, two, three or four hours). Firewalls can also act as smoke barriers when constructed vertically from slab to roof deck and horizontally from an exterior wall to exterior wall subdividing a building into sections.

    Shear wall

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    Shear walls resist lateral forces such as in an earthquake or severe wind. There are different kinds of shear walls such as the steel plate shear wall.

    Knee wall

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    Knee walls are short walls that either support rafters or add height in the top floor rooms of houses. In a 1+12-story house, the knee wall supports the half story.

    Cavity wall

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    Cavity walls are walls made with a space between two "skins" to inhibit heat transfer.

    Pony wall

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    Pony wall (or dwarf wall) is a general term for short walls, such as:

    • A half wall that only extends partway from floor to ceiling, without supporting anything
    • A stem wall—a concrete wall that extends from the foundation slab to the cripple wall or floor joists
    • A cripple wall—a framed wall from the stem wall or foundation slab to the floor joists

    Demountable wall

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    Demountable wall and door in an office building

    Demountable walls fall into 3 different main types:

    • Glass walls (unitesed panels or butt joint),
    • Laminated particle board walls (this may also include other finishes, such as whiteboards, cork board, magnetic, etc., typically all on purpose-made wall studs)
    • Drywall

    Solar energy

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    A trombe wall in passive solar building design acts as a heat sink.

    Shipbuilding

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    On a ship, a wall that separates major compartments is called a bulkhead. A thinner wall between cabins is called a partition.

    Boundary wall

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    Stone wall of an English barn
    A red bricks boundary wall intersection

    Boundary walls include privacy walls, boundary-marking walls on property, and town walls. These intergrade into fences. The conventional differentiation is that a fence is of minimal thickness and often open in nature, while a wall is usually more than a nominal thickness and is completely closed, or opaque. More to the point, an exterior structure of wood or wire is generally called a fence—but one of masonry is a wall. A common term for both is barrier, which is convenient for structures that are partly wall and partly fence—for example the Berlin Wall. Another kind of wall-fence ambiguity is the ha-ha—which is set below ground level to protect a view, yet acts as a barrier (to cattle, for example).

    An old Italian wall surrounded by flowers

    Before the invention of artillery, many of the world's cities and towns, particularly in Europe and Asia, had defensive or protective walls (also called town walls or city walls). In fact, the English word "wall" derives from Latin vallum—a type of fortification wall. These walls are no longer relevant for defense, so such cities have grown beyond their walls, and many fortification walls, or portions of them, have been torn down—for example in Rome, Italy and Beijing, China. Examples of protective walls on a much larger scale include the Great Wall of China and Hadrian's Wall.

    Border wall

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    Berlin wall, July 1, 1988
    Mexico–United States barrier in California

    Some walls formally mark the border between one population and another. A border wall is constructed to limit the movement of people across a certain line or border. These structures vary in placement with regard to international borders and topography. The most famous example of border barrier in history is probably the Great Wall of China, a series of walls that separated the Empire of China from nomadic powers to the north. The most prominent recent example is the Berlin Wall, which surrounded the enclave of West Berlin and separated it from East Germany for most of the Cold War era. The US-Mexico border wall, separating the United States and Mexico, is another recent example.

    Retaining wall

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    Dry-stone wall - Grendon
    Ashlar wall - Inca wall at Machu Picchu, Peru
    View of the western enclosing wall of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (also called the Mosque of Uqba) in the city of Kairouan in Tunisia.

    In areas of rocky soils around the world, farmers have often pulled large quantities of stone out of their fields to make farming easier and have stacked those stones to make walls that either mark the field boundary, or the property boundary, or both.

    Retaining walls resist movement of earth, stone, or water. They may be part of a building or external. The ground surface or water on one side of a retaining wall is typically higher than on the other side. A dike is a retaining wall, as is a levee, a load-bearing foundation wall, and a sea wall.

    Shared wall

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    Special laws often govern walls that neighbouring properties share. Typically, one neighbour cannot alter the common wall if it is likely to affect the building or property on the other side. A wall may also separate apartment or hotel rooms from each other. Each wall has two sides and breaking a wall on one side will break the wall on the other side.

    Portable wall

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    Portable walls, such as room dividers or portable partitions divide a larger open space into smaller rooms. Portable walls can be static, such as cubicle walls, or can be wall panels mounted on casters to provide an easy way to reconfigure assembly space. They are often found inside schools, churches, convention centers, hotels, and corporate facilities.

    Temporary wall

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    A temporary wall is constructed for easy removal or demolition. A typical temporary wall can be constructed with 1⁄2" (6 mm) to 5⁄8" (16 mm) sheet rock (plasterboard), metal 2 × 3s (approx. 5 × 7 cm), or 2 × 4s, or taped, plastered and compounded. Most installation companies use lattice (strips of wood) to cover the joints of the temporary wall with the ceiling. These are sometimes known as pressurized walls or temporary pressurized walls.

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    Walls are often seen in popular culture, oftentimes representing barriers preventing progress or entry. For example:

    Fictional and symbolic walls

    The progressive/psychedelic rock band Pink Floyd used a metaphorical wall to represent the isolation felt by the protagonist of their 1979 concept album The Wall.

    The American poet laureate Robert Frost describes a pointless rock wall as a metaphor for the myopia of the culture-bound in his poem "Mending Wall", published in 1914.

    Walls are a recurring symbol in Ursula K. Le Guin's 1974 novel The Dispossessed'.

    In some cases, a wall may refer to an individual's debilitating mental or physical condition, seen as an impassable barrier.[citation needed]

    In George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series and its television adaptation, Game of Thrones, The Wall plays multiple important roles: as a colossal fortification, made of ice and fortified with magic spells; as a cultural barrier; and as a codification of assumptions. Breaches of the wall, who is allowed to cross it and who is not, and its destruction have important symbolic, logistical, and socio-political implications in the storyline. Reportedly over 700 feet high and 100 leagues (300 miles) wide, it divides the northern border of the Seven Kingdoms realm from the domain of the wildlings and several categories of undead who live beyond it.[8][9][10]

    Historical walls

    In a real-life example, the Berlin Wall, constructed by the Soviet Union to divide Berlin into NATO and Warsaw Pact zones of occupation, became a worldwide symbol of oppression and isolation.[11]

    Social media walls

    Another common usage is as a communal surface to write upon. For instance the social networking site Facebook previously used an electronic "wall" to log the scrawls of friends until it was replaced by the "timeline" feature.

    See also

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    • Ashlar
    • Chemise (wall)
    • Clay panel
    • Climbing wall
    • Crinkle crankle wall
    • Fabric structure
    • Great Green Wall (Africa)
    • Great Green Wall (China)
    • Green wall
    • List of walls
    • Sleeper wall
    • Stone wall
    • Tensile structure
    • Terraced wall
    • Thin-shell structure
    • Wallpaper

    References

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    1. ^ "Wall". Whitney, William Dwight, and Benjamin E. Smith. The Century dictionary and cyclopedia, vol. 8. New York: Century Co., 1901. 6,809. Print.
    2. ^ Committee on Damp Indoor Spaces and Health, Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. Damp indoor spaces and health. Institute of Medicine, (U. S.). National Academies Press. Washington, D. C.. 2004. 34-35. Print.
    3. ^ a b Straube, J. F.and Burnett, E. F. P., "Driving Rain and Masonry Veneer". Water Leakage through Building Facades, ASTM STP 1314. R. J. Kudder and J. L. Erdly, Eds. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1998. 75. Print.
    4. ^ Baróthy, Anna (2016). "Széll Kálmán square, Budapest, Hungary « Landscape Architecture Works". Landezine. Archived from the original on 2018-02-07. Retrieved 2018-02-07.
    5. ^ "PARTITION WALL". Principles of Design. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
    6. ^ "Partition Walls". Excellence in craftsmanship. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
    7. ^ NFPA 221 Standard for high Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls (2021 ed.). Table 4.9.2.
    8. ^ "Game of Thrones: Everything to Know About the Wall". Vulture. August 27, 2017.
    9. ^ "Game of Thrones Wall: How the Wall was built, and what its destruction means". Telegraph. April 15, 2019. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12.
    10. ^ "'Game of Thrones' Season 8: How Was The Wall Built?". Newsweek. April 7, 2019.
    11. ^ Preuss, Evelyn (2005). "The Wall You Will Never Know". Perspecta 036: The Yale Architectural Journal. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 19–31.
    [edit]

     

     

    Construction site and equipment prepared for start of work in Cologne, Germany (2017)

    Construction is a general term meaning the art and science of forming objects, systems, or organizations.[1] It comes from the Latin word constructio (from com- "together" and struere "to pile up") and Old French construction.[2] To 'construct' is a verb: the act of building, and the noun is construction: how something is built or the nature of its structure.

    In its most widely used context, construction covers the processes involved in delivering buildings, infrastructure, industrial facilities, and associated activities through to the end of their life. It typically starts with planning, financing, and design that continues until the asset is built and ready for use. Construction also covers repairs and maintenance work, any works to expand, extend and improve the asset, and its eventual demolition, dismantling or decommissioning.

    The construction industry contributes significantly to many countries' gross domestic products (GDP). Global expenditure on construction activities was about $4 trillion in 2012. In 2022, expenditure on the construction industry exceeded $11 trillion a year, equivalent to about 13 percent of global GDP. This spending was forecasted to rise to around $14.8 trillion in 2030.[3]

    The construction industry promotes economic development and brings many non-monetary benefits to many countries, but it is one of the most hazardous industries. For example, about 20% (1,061) of US industry fatalities in 2019 happened in construction.[4]

    History

    [edit]

    The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers and carpenters, appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, the artisan craftsmen were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later, diesel- and electric-powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.

    Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction.[5]

    Construction industry sectors

    [edit]
    Industrial assemblage of a thermal oxidizer in the United States

    Broadly, there are three sectors of construction: buildings, infrastructure and industrial:[6]

    • Building construction is usually further divided into residential and non-residential.
    • Infrastructure, also called 'heavy civil' or 'heavy engineering', includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, railways, water or wastewater and utility distribution.
    • Industrial construction includes offshore construction (mainly of energy installations), mining and quarrying, refineries, chemical processing, mills and manufacturing plants.

    The industry can also be classified into sectors or markets.[7] For example, Engineering News-Record (ENR), a US-based construction trade magazine, has compiled and reported data about the size of design and construction contractors. In 2014, it split the data into nine market segments: transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewage/waste, telecom, hazardous waste, and a tenth category for other projects.[8] ENR used data on transportation, sewage, hazardous waste and water to rank firms as heavy contractors.[9]

    The Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System classify companies that perform or engage in construction into three subsectors: building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors. There are also categories for professional services firms (e.g., engineering, architecture, surveying, project management).[10][11]

    Building construction

    [edit]
    Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan

    Building construction is the process of adding structures to areas of land, also known as real property sites. Typically, a project is instigated by or with the owner of the property (who may be an individual or an organisation); occasionally, land may be compulsorily purchased from the owner for public use.[12]

    Residential construction

    [edit]
    Units under construction in Brighton, Victoria, Australia

    Residential construction may be undertaken by individual land-owners (self-built), by specialist housebuilders, by property developers, by general contractors, or by providers of public or social housing (e.g.: local authorities, housing associations). Where local zoning or planning policies allow, mixed-use developments may comprise both residential and non-residential construction (e.g.: retail, leisure, offices, public buildings, etc.).

    Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority's regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g.: brick versus stone versus timber). Costs of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, access routes, local regulations, economies of scale (custom-designed homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople.[13]

    Non-residential construction

    [edit]
    Construction of the Federal Reserve building in Kansas City, Missouri

    Depending upon the type of building, non-residential building construction can be procured by a wide range of private and public organisations, including local authorities, educational and religious bodies, transport undertakings, retailers, hoteliers, property developers, financial institutions and other private companies. Most construction in these sectors is undertaken by general contractors.

    Infrastructure construction

    [edit]
    Shasta Dam under construction in June 1942

    Civil engineering covers the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, tunnels, airports, water and sewerage systems, pipelines, and railways.[14][15] Some general contractors have expertise in civil engineering; civil engineering contractors are firms dedicated to work in this sector, and may specialise in particular types of infrastructure.

    Industrial construction

    [edit]
    The National Cement Share Company of Ethiopia's new plant in Dire Dawa

    Industrial construction includes offshore construction (mainly of energy installations: oil and gas platforms, wind power), mining and quarrying, refineries, breweries, distilleries and other processing plants, power stations, steel mills, warehouses and factories.

    Construction processes

    [edit]

    Some construction projects are small renovations or repair jobs, like repainting or fixing leaks, where the owner may act as designer, paymaster and laborer for the entire project. However, more complex or ambitious projects usually require additional multi-disciplinary expertise and manpower, so the owner may commission one or more specialist businesses to undertake detailed planning, design, construction and handover of the work. Often the owner will appoint one business to oversee the project (this may be a designer, a contractor, a construction manager, or other advisors); such specialists are normally appointed for their expertise in project delivery and construction management and will help the owner define the project brief, agree on a budget and schedule, liaise with relevant public authorities, and procure materials and the services of other specialists (the supply chain, comprising subcontractors and materials suppliers). Contracts are agreed for the delivery of services by all businesses, alongside other detailed plans aimed at ensuring legal, timely, on-budget and safe delivery of the specified works.

    Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must be adequate to build the design provided and must pay amounts that are legally owed. Legal structures integrate design with other activities and enforce financial and other construction processes.

    These processes also affect procurement strategies. Clients may, for example, appoint a business to design the project, after which a competitive process is undertaken to appoint a lead contractor to construct the asset (design–bid–build); they may appoint a business to lead both design and construction (design-build); or they may directly appoint a designer, contractor and specialist subcontractors (construction management).[16] Some forms of procurement emphasize collaborative relationships (partnering, alliancing) between the client, the contractor, and other stakeholders within a construction project, seeking to ameliorate often highly competitive and adversarial industry practices. DfMA (design for manufacture and assembly) approaches also emphasize early collaboration with manufacturers and suppliers regarding products and components.

    Construction or refurbishment work in a "live" environment (where residents or businesses remain living in or operating on the site) requires particular care, planning and communication.[17]

    Planning

    [edit]
    Digging the foundation for a building construction in Jakarta, Indonesia

    When applicable, a proposed construction project must comply with local land-use planning policies including zoning and building code requirements. A project will normally be assessed (by the 'authority having jurisdiction', AHJ, typically the municipality where the project will be located) for its potential impacts on neighbouring properties, and upon existing infrastructure (transportation, social infrastructure, and utilities including water supply, sewerage, electricity, telecommunications, etc.). Data may be gathered through site analysis, site surveys and geotechnical investigations. Construction normally cannot start until planning permission has been granted, and may require preparatory work to ensure relevant infrastructure has been upgraded before building work can commence. Preparatory works will also include surveys of existing utility lines to avoid damage-causing outages and other hazardous situations.

    Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent indisputably bad phenomena, e.g. explosions or bridge collapses. Other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum considerations, or factors that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses from a business district or residences from a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will not cause a collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community).[18]

    During the construction of a building, a municipal building inspector usually inspects the ongoing work periodically to ensure that construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete, any later changes made to a building or other asset that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire protection, usually require municipality approval.

    Finance

    [edit]

    Depending on the type of project, mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers may participate in creating an overall plan for the financial management of a construction project. The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Professionals including cost engineers, estimators and quantity surveyors apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation.

    Financial planning ensures adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place before the project is started, and ensures that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project. Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems.[19] Underbids happen when builders ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials; such problems may arise even when the overall budget is adequate, presenting a temporary issue. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or project changes that increased costs, which are not subject to competition from other firms as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.[20] Fraud is also an issue of growing significance within construction.[21]

    Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual cost estimate performed by a building estimator. As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carry forward. Public–private partnerships (PPPs) or private finance initiatives (PFIs) may also be used to help deliver major projects. According to McKinsey in 2019, the "vast majority of large construction projects go over budget and take 20% longer than expected".[22]

    [edit]
    Construction along Ontario Highway 401, widening the road from six to twelve travel lanes

    A construction project is a complex net of construction contracts and other legal obligations, each of which all parties must carefully consider. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, and provides structures to manage issues. For example, construction delays can be costly, so construction contracts set out clear expectations and clear paths to manage delays. Poorly drafted contracts can lead to confusion and costly disputes.

    At the start of a project, legal advisors seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structures, and to present options for preventing problems. During projects, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project.

    Apartment complex under construction in Daegu, South Korea

    Procurement

    [edit]

    Traditional or Design-bid-build

    [edit]

    Design-bid-build is the most common and well-established method of construction procurement. In this arrangement, the architect, engineer or builder acts for the client as the project coordinator. They design the works, prepare specifications and design deliverables (models, drawings, etc.), administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. In parallel, there are direct contractual links between the client and the main contractor, who, in turn, has direct contractual relationships with subcontractors. The arrangement continues until the project is ready for handover.

    Design-build

    [edit]

    Design-build became more common from the late 20th century, and involves the client contracting a single entity to provide design and construction. In some cases, the design-build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents. Typically, the client invites several Design & Build (D&B) contractors to submit proposals to meet the project brief and then selects a preferred supplier. Often this will be a consortium involving a design firm and a contractor (sometimes more than one of each). In the United States, departments of transportation usually use design-build contracts as a way of progressing projects where states lack the skills or resources, particularly for very large projects.[23]

    Construction management

    [edit]

    In a construction management arrangement, the client enters into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), a construction manager, and individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together. This approach is often used to speed up procurement processes, to allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, to enable the appointment of individual work contractors, to separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.

    Design

    [edit]

    In the industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. Most commonly (i.e.: in a design-bid-build project), the design team is employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Depending upon the type of project, a design team may include architects, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. A 'lead designer' will normally be identified to help coordinate different disciplinary inputs to the overall design. This may be aided by integration of previously separate disciplines (often undertaken by separate firms) into multi-disciplinary firms with experts from all related fields,[24] or by firms establishing relationships to support design-build processes.

    The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of a project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the asset as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. For buildings, building engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.

    Traditionally, design has involved the production of sketches, architectural and engineering drawings, and specifications. Until the late 20th century, drawings were largely hand-drafted; adoption of computer-aided design (CAD) technologies then improved design productivity, while the 21st-century introduction of building information modeling (BIM) processes has involved the use of computer-generated models that can be used in their own right or to generate drawings and other visualisations as well as capturing non-geometric data about building components and systems.

    On some projects, work on-site will not start until design work is largely complete; on others, some design work may be undertaken concurrently with the early stages of on-site activity (for example, work on a building's foundations may commence while designers are still working on the detailed designs of the building's internal spaces). Some projects may include elements that are designed for off-site construction (see also prefabrication and modular building) and are then delivered to the site ready for erection, installation or assembly.

    On-site construction

    [edit]
    On-site foundation construction.

    Once contractors and other relevant professionals have been appointed and designs are sufficiently advanced, work may commence on the project site. Typically, a construction site will include a secure perimeter to restrict unauthorised access, site access control points, office and welfare accommodation for personnel from the main contractor and other firms involved in the project team, and storage areas for materials, machinery and equipment. According to the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction's definition, construction may be said to have started when the first feature of the permanent structure has been put in place, such as pile driving, or the pouring of slabs or footings.[25]

    Commissioning and handover

    [edit]

    Commissioning is the process of verifying that all subsystems of a new building (or other assets) work as intended to achieve the owner's project requirements and as designed by the project's architects and engineers.

    Defects liability period

    [edit]

    A period after handover (or practical completion) during which the owner may identify any shortcomings in relation to the building specification ('defects'), with a view to the contractor correcting the defect.[26]

    Maintenance, repair and improvement

    [edit]

    Maintenance involves functional checks, servicing, repairing or replacing of necessary devices, equipment, machinery, building infrastructure, and supporting utilities in industrial, business, governmental, and residential installations.[27][28]

    Demolition

    [edit]

    Demolition is the discipline of safely and efficiently tearing down buildings and other artificial structures. Demolition contrasts with deconstruction, which involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving valuable elements for reuse purposes (recycling – see also circular economy).

    Industry scale and characteristics

    [edit]

    Economic activity

    [edit]
    Helicopter view of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Operations Support Facility (OSF) construction site

    The output of the global construction industry was worth an estimated $10.8 trillion in 2017, and in 2018 was forecast to rise to $12.9 trillion by 2022,[29] and to around $14.8 trillion in 2030.[3] As a sector, construction accounts for more than 10% of global GDP (in developed countries, construction comprises 6–9% of GDP),[30] and employs around 7% of the total employed workforce around the globe[31] (accounting for over 273 million full- and part-time jobs in 2014).[32] Since 2010,[33] China has been the world's largest single construction market.[34] The United States is the second largest construction market with a 2018 output of $1.581 trillion.[35]

    • In the United States in February 2020, around $1.4 trillion worth of construction work was in progress, according to the Census Bureau, of which just over $1.0 trillion was for the private sector (split roughly 55:45% between residential and nonresidential); the remainder was public sector, predominantly for state and local government.[36]
    • In Armenia, the construction sector experienced growth during the latter part of 2000s. Based on National Statistical Service, Armenia's construction sector generated approximately 20% of Armenia's GDP during the first and second quarters of 2007. In 2009, according to the World Bank, 30% of Armenia's economy was from construction sector.[37]
    • In Vietnam, the construction industry plays an important role in the national economy.[38][39][40] The Vietnamese construction industry has been one of the fastest growing in the Asia-Pacific region in recent years.[41][42] The market was valued at nearly $60 billion in 2021.[43] In the first half of 2022, Vietnam's construction industry growth rate reached 5.59%.[43][44][45] In 2022, Vietnam's construction industry accounted for more than 6% of the country's GDP, equivalent to over 589.7 billion Vietnamese dong.[46][47] The industry of industry and construction accounts for 38.26% of Vietnam's GDP.[48][49][50] At the same time, the industry is one of the most attractive industries for foreign direct investment (FDI) in recent years.[51][52][53]

    Construction is a major source of employment in most countries; high reliance on small businesses, and under-representation of women are common traits. For example:

    • In the US, construction employed around 11.4m people in 2020, with a further 1.8m employed in architectural, engineering, and related professional services – equivalent to just over 8% of the total US workforce.[54] The construction workers were employed in over 843,000 organisations, of which 838,000 were privately held businesses.[55] In March 2016, 60.4% of construction workers were employed by businesses with fewer than 50 staff.[56] Women are substantially underrepresented (relative to their share of total employment), comprising 10.3% of the US construction workforce, and 25.9% of professional services workers, in 2019.[54]
    • The United Kingdom construction sector contributed £117 billion (6%) to UK GDP in 2018, and in 2019 employed 2.4m workers (6.6% of all jobs). These worked either for 343,000 'registered' construction businesses, or for 'unregistered' businesses, typically self-employed contractors;[57] just over one million small/medium-sized businesses, mainly self-employed individuals, worked in the sector in 2019, comprising about 18% of all UK businesses.[58] Women comprised 12.5% of the UK construction workforce.[59]

    According to McKinsey research, productivity growth per worker in construction has lagged behind many other industries across different countries including in the United States and in European countries. In the United States, construction productivity per worker has declined by half since the 1960s.[60]

    Construction GVA by country

    [edit]
    List of countries with the largest construction Gross Value Added in 2018
    Economy
    Construction GVA in 2018 (billions in USD)
    (01)  China
     
    934.2
    (02)  United States
     
    839.1
    (03)  Japan
     
    275.5
    (04)  India
     
    201.2
    (05)  Germany
     
    180.5
    (06)  United Kingdom
     
    154.7
    (07)  France
     
    138.7
    (08)  Canada
     
    125.4
    (09)  Russia
     
    121.2
    (10)  Australia
     
    111.8
    (11)  Indonesia
     
    109.7
    (12)  South Korea
     
    93.0
    (13)  Brazil
     
    92.6
    (14)  Mexico
     
    89.0
    (15)  Spain
     
    80.0
    (16)  Italy
     
    78.9
    (17)  Turkey
     
    55.3
    (18)  Saudi Arabia
     
    40.2
    (19)  Netherlands
     
    39.5
    (20)  Poland
     
    39.4
    (21)  Switzerland
     
    36.3
    (22)  United Arab Emirates
     
    34.5
    (23)  Sweden
     
    33.3
    (24)  Austria
     
    27.2
    (25)  Qatar
     
    27.0

    The twenty-five largest countries in the world by construction GVA (2018)[61]

    Employment

    [edit]
    Ironworkers erecting the steel frame of a new building at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston
    A truck operator at Al Gamil, the largest construction company in Djibouti

    Some workers may be engaged in manual labour[62] as unskilled or semi-skilled workers; they may be skilled tradespeople; or they may be supervisory or managerial personnel. Under safety legislation in the United Kingdom, for example, construction workers are defined as people "who work for or under the control of a contractor on a construction site";[63] in Canada, this can include people whose work includes ensuring conformance with building codes and regulations, and those who supervise other workers.[64]

    Laborers comprise a large grouping in most national construction industries. In the United States, for example, in May 2021 the construction sector employed just over 7.5 million people, of whom just over 820,000 were laborers, while 573,000 were carpenters, 508,000 were electricians, 258,000 were equipment operators and 230,000 were construction managers.[65] Like most business sectors, there is also substantial white-collar employment in construction – 681,000 US workers were recorded by the United States Department of Labor as in 'office and administrative support occupations' in May 2021.[66]

    Large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. A project manager normally manages the budget on the job, and a construction manager, design engineer, construction engineer or architect supervises it. Those involved with the design and execution must consider zoning requirements and legal issues, environmental impact of the project, scheduling, budgeting and bidding, construction site safety, availability and transportation of building materials, logistics, and inconvenience to the public, including those caused by construction delays.

    Some models and policy-making organisations promote the engagement of local labour in construction projects as a means of tackling social exclusion and addressing skill shortages. In the UK, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation reported in 2000 on 25 projects which had aimed to offer training and employment opportunities for locally based school leavers and unemployed people.[67] The Foundation published "a good practice resource book" in this regard at the same time.[68] Use of local labour and local materials were specified for the construction of the Danish Storebaelt bridge, but there were legal issues which were challenged in court and addressed by the European Court of Justice in 1993. The court held that a contract condition requiring use of local labour and local materials was incompatible with EU treaty principles.[69] Later UK guidance noted that social and employment clauses, where used, must be compatible with relevant EU regulation.[70] Employment of local labour was identified as one of several social issues which could potentially be incorporated in a sustainable procurement approach, although the interdepartmental Sustainable Procurement Group recognised that "there is far less scope to incorporate [such] social issues in public procurement than is the case with environmental issues".[71]

    There are many routes to the different careers within the construction industry. There are three main tiers of construction workers based on educational background and training, which vary by country:

    Unskilled and semi-skilled workers

    [edit]

    Unskilled and semi-skilled workers provide general site labor, often have few or no construction qualifications, and may receive basic site training.

    Skilled tradespeople

    [edit]

    Skilled tradespeople have typically served apprenticeships (sometimes in labor unions) or received technical training; this group also includes on-site managers who possess extensive knowledge and experience in their craft or profession. Skilled manual occupations include carpenters, electricians, plumbers, ironworkers, heavy equipment operators and masons, as well as those involved in project management. In the UK these require further education qualifications, often in vocational subject areas, undertaken either directly after completing compulsory education or through "on the job" apprenticeships.[72]

    Professional, technical or managerial personnel

    [edit]

    Professional, technical and managerial personnel often have higher education qualifications, usually graduate degrees, and are trained to design and manage construction processes. These roles require more training as they demand greater technical knowledge, and involve more legal responsibility. Example roles (and qualification routes) include:

    • Architect – Will usually have studied architecture to degree level, and then undertaken further study and gained professional experience. In many countries, the title of "architect" is protected by law, strictly limiting its use to qualified people.
    • Civil engineer – Typically holds a degree in a related subject and may only be eligible for membership of a professional institution (such as the UK's ICE) following completion of additional training and experience. In some jurisdictions, a new university graduate must hold a master's degree to become chartered,[a] and persons with bachelor's degrees may become Incorporated Engineers.
    • Building services engineer – May also be referred to as an "M&E" or "mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) engineer" and typically holds a degree in mechanical or electrical engineering.[a]
    • Project manager – Typically holds a 4-year or greater higher education qualification, but are often also qualified in another field such as architecture, civil engineering or quantity surveying.
    • Structural engineer – Typically holds a bachelor's or master's degree in structural engineering.[a]
    • Quantity surveyor – Typically holds a bachelor's degree in quantity surveying. UK chartered status is gained from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors.

    Safety

    [edit]
    At-risk workers without appropriate safety equipment

    Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European Union.[4][73] In the US in 2019, 1,061, or about 20%, of worker fatalities in private industry occurred in construction.[4] In 2017, more than a third of US construction fatalities (366 out of 971 total fatalities) were the result of falls;[74] in the UK, half of the average 36 fatalities per annum over a five-year period to 2021 were attributed to falls from height.[75] Proper safety equipment such as harnesses, hard hats and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry.[76] Other major causes of fatalities in the construction industry include electrocution, transportation accidents, and trench cave-ins.[77]

    Other safety risks for workers in construction include hearing loss due to high noise exposure, musculoskeletal injury, chemical exposure, and high levels of stress.[78] Besides that, the high turnover of workers in construction industry imposes a huge challenge of accomplishing the restructuring of work practices in individual workplaces or with individual workers.[citation needed] Construction has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.[79][80] A study conducted in 2022 found “significant effect of air pollution exposure on construction-related injuries and fatalities”, especially with the exposure of nitrogen dioxide.[81]

    Sustainability

    [edit]

    Sustainability is an aspect of "green building", defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as "the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction."[82]

    Decarbonising construction

    [edit]

    The construction industry may require transformation at pace and at scale if it is to successfully contribute to achieving the target set out in The Paris Agreement of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5C above industrial levels.[83][84] The World Green Building Council has stated the buildings and infrastructure around the world can reach 40% less embodied carbon emissions but that this can only be achieved through urgent transformation.[85][86]

    Conclusions from industry leaders have suggested that the net zero transformation is likely to be challenging for the construction industry, but it does present an opportunity. Action is demanded from governments, standards bodies, the construction sector, and the engineering profession to meet the decarbonising targets.[87]

    In 2021, the National Engineering Policy Centre published its report Decarbonising Construction: Building a new net zero industry,[87] which outlined key areas to decarbonise the construction sector and the wider built environment. This report set out around 20 different recommendations to transform and decarbonise the construction sector, including recommendations for engineers, the construction industry and decision makers, plus outlined six-overarching ‘system levers’ where action taken now will result in rapid decarbonisation of the construction sector.[87] These levels are:

    • Setting and stipulating progressive targets for carbon reduction
    • Embedding quantitative whole-life carbon assessment into public procurement
    • Increasing design efficiency, materials reuse and retrofit of buildings
    • Improving whole-life carbon performance
    • Improving skills for net zero
    • Adopting a joined up, systems approach to decarbonisation across the construction sector and with other sectors

    Progress is being made internationally to decarbonise the sector including improvements to sustainable procurement practice such as the CO2 performance ladder in the Netherlands and the Danish Partnership for Green Public Procurement.[88][89] There are also now demonstrations of applying the principles of circular economy practices in practice such as Circl, ABN AMRO's sustainable pavilion and the Brighton Waste House.[90][91][92]

    See also

    [edit]
    • Agile construction – Management system in the construction industry
    • Building material – Material which is used for construction purposes
    • Civil engineering – Engineering discipline focused on physical infrastructure
    • Commissioning (construction) – Process to ensure that all building systems perform according to the "Design Intent"
    • Environmental impact of concrete
    • Impervious surface – Artificial structures such as pavements covered with water-tight materials
    • Index of construction articles
    • Land degradation – Gradual destruction of land
    • List of tallest structures
    • List of tallest structures built before the 20th century
    • Modern methods of construction
    • Outline of construction – Overview of and topical guide to construction
    • Real estate development – Process that creates or renovates new or existing spaces
    • Structural robustness – Ability of a structure to withstand physical strain
    • Umarell – Bolognese slang term

    icon Architecture portal icon Engineering portal

    Notes

    [edit]
    1. ^ a b c In the UK, the Chartered Engineer qualification is controlled by the Engineering Council, and is often achieved through membership of the relevant professional institution (ICE, CIBSE, IStructE, etc).

    References

    [edit]
    1. ^ "Construction" def. 1.a. 1.b. and 1.c. Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press 2009
    2. ^ "Construction". Online Etymology Dictionary http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=construction accessed 3/6/2014
    3. ^ a b "Global Construction Report 2030". GCP DBA. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
    4. ^ a b c "Commonly Used Statistics: Worker fatalities". Occupational Safety and Health Administration. United States Department of Labor. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
    5. ^ Knecht B. Fast-track construction becomes the norm. Architectural Record.
    6. ^ Chitkara, pp. 9–10.
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    Driving Directions in Cook County


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    Reviews for United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc


    United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

    Paul Gunderlock

    (4)

    The staff was helpful, very nice and easy to work with and completed the work timely and cleaned up well. Communications faltered a bit at times and there was an email communications glitch which was no fault of anyone, but no big deal and all ended up fine. We sure feel better to have this done and hope that is the end of our structural issues. It does seem like (after talking to several related companies), that it would be great if some of these related companies had a structural engineer on staff vs using on the job expertise gained over years - which is definitely valuable! But leaves a bit of uncertainty - and probably saves money for both sides may be the trade-off? So far, so good though! Thank you.

    United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

    Sarah McNeily

    (5)

    USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.

    United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

    Dave Kari

    (5)

    What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.

    United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

    Chris Abplanalp

    (5)

    USS did an amazing job on my underpinning on my house, they were also very courteous to the proximity of my property line next to my neighbor. They kept things in order with all the dirt/mud they had to excavate. They were done exactly in the timeframe they indicated, and the contract was very details oriented with drawings of what would be done. Only thing that would have been nice, is they left my concrete a little muddy with boot prints but again, all-in-all a great job

    United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

    Jim de Leon

    (5)

    It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well. I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths). You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company. The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door). I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!

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    Frequently Asked Questions

    Regional climate patterns, such as temperature fluctuations, precipitation levels, and soil moisture content, significantly impact foundation health. Areas with extreme weather or seasonal changes can cause the soil to expand and contract, leading to foundation movement and potential cracking.
    Conditions like heavy rainfall causing soil saturation, prolonged droughts leading to soil shrinkage, freeze-thaw cycles in colder regions, and high temperatures that cause rapid drying of soils can all be detrimental to foundation stability.
    Understanding local climate helps in selecting appropriate repair materials and methods that withstand environmental stresses. It also aids in implementing preventative measures tailored to specific climatic challenges.
    Yes, regions with volatile weather patterns or severe conditions may necessitate more regular inspections and maintenance. This proactive approach helps identify early signs of damage before they escalate into major issues.
    Future climate changes could intensify existing stresses on foundations or introduce new challenges. Adaptation strategies may include designing more resilient structures, utilizing advanced materials, and updating building codes to reflect changing environmental conditions.