Understanding the Structural Differences in Masonry Splits

Understanding the Structural Differences in Masonry Splits

Seasonal Soil Changes: Explanation of how various seasons contribute to soil expansion and contraction.

Masonry, a timeless and resilient building material, has been used for centuries to construct some of the most enduring structures known to humanity.

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However, even this robust material is not immune to the forces that can cause it to split and deteriorate over time. Basements are prone to moisture-related cracks Repairs Cracked Wall leak. Understanding the structural differences in masonry splits is crucial for maintaining the integrity and longevity of any building.


One of the primary causes of masonry splits lies in thermal expansion and contraction. Masonry materials such as brick, stone, and concrete expand when heated and contract when cooled. This natural response to temperature changes can lead to stress within the structure if not properly accounted for during construction. Without adequate expansion joints or control joints, the accumulated stress can cause cracks or splits in the masonry.


Another significant factor contributing to masonry splits is moisture intrusion. Water is one of masonry's biggest adversaries; it can seep into tiny cracks or pores in the material. When temperatures drop, this water can freeze and expand, exerting pressure on the surrounding material, which leads to splitting-a process known as freeze-thaw cycling. Over time, repeated freeze-thaw cycles can exacerbate these splits, leading to more extensive damage.


The quality of construction plays a pivotal role as well. Poor workmanship during construction-such as inadequate mortar mix or improper curing times-can leave a structure vulnerable to cracking. Masonry relies on both skilled craftsmanship and appropriate materials; using substandard elements or failing to adhere closely to construction guidelines often results in weak spots that eventually manifest as splits.


Structural movement due to foundation settling can also contribute significantly to masonry splitting. As buildings age, their foundations may shift slightly due to soil movement or compaction under load. This movement places additional stress on rigid masonry walls that lack flexibility, causing them to crack or split along points of weakness.


Environmental factors like seismic activity pose another threat by subjecting structures to sudden lateral forces beyond what they were designed for. During an earthquake, differential movements between connected walls can generate shear stresses that result in splitting along mortar joints or even through individual bricks themselves.


In conclusion, understanding why masonry splits occur involves recognizing a combination of natural processes like thermal dynamics and environmental exposure alongside human factors such as construction quality and design choices. By addressing these issues through proper planning-including considerations for climate conditions-and employing skilled labor during construction phases while ensuring regular maintenance checks post-completion; we ensure our buildings remain strong against nature's relentless tests throughout their lifespan without succumbing easily into ruinous states caused by preventable fractures within their very fabric itself!

Understanding the structural differences in masonry splits is crucial for anyone involved in the field of architecture, construction, or historical preservation. Masonry, whether it be brick, stone, or concrete block, serves as a fundamental building material that not only provides structural support but also contributes to the aesthetic appeal of buildings. However, over time and under various environmental stresses, these materials can develop splits or cracks that may compromise their integrity and durability.


The identification of structural differences in masonry splits begins with a keen observation of the nature and pattern of the cracks. Not all splits are equal; they can vary significantly based on several factors such as the type of material used, the age of the structure, climatic conditions, and even the initial construction methods employed. For instance, brick masonry might exhibit hairline cracks due to thermal expansion and contraction over time. In contrast, stone masonry could reveal more substantial fissures resulting from foundation settlement or seismic activity.


One must also consider the orientation and location of these splits within a structure. Horizontal cracks might indicate issues related to excessive weight or pressure exerted by upper levels of a building. Vertical splits could suggest foundational movements or settlements that need urgent attention. Diagonal cracks often point towards shear stress problems caused by lateral forces like wind or earthquakes.




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Moreover, understanding the underlying causes behind these splits is essential for determining appropriate remedial actions. For example, if moisture ingress is identified as a primary cause due to poor drainage systems or inadequate waterproofing measures, addressing these issues will be paramount before any repair work on the masonry itself begins.


Historical structures present an added layer of complexity when analyzing masonry splits because preserving original materials and techniques is often a priority. In such cases, experts may employ non-invasive methods like laser scanning technology to assess damage without causing further harm to delicate surfaces.


In conclusion, identifying structural differences in masonry splits requires an interdisciplinary approach combining knowledge from engineering principles with insights into materials science and environmental factors. Whether it's ensuring modern buildings remain safe and functional or preserving our architectural heritage for future generations, understanding these nuances plays a pivotal role in maintaining the integrity and longevity of masonry constructions.

Vertical vs Horizontal Cracks What They Indicate

Vertical vs Horizontal Cracks What They Indicate

Cracks in walls can be a homeowner’s nightmare, often signaling underlying structural issues that require attention.. Understanding the nature of these cracks—whether vertical or horizontal—is crucial for determining their cause and implementing effective repair and prevention strategies. Vertical cracks are typically less alarming than their horizontal counterparts.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Understanding Seasonal Risks for Foundation Integrity

Understanding Seasonal Risks for Foundation Integrity

Seasonal changes are a natural part of our environment, bringing with them a variety of challenges and opportunities.. For those concerned with the integrity of foundations, these seasonal shifts can pose significant risks that require careful consideration and strategic management.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Tracking the Progression of Stair-Step Cracks in Block Walls

Tracking the Progression of Stair-Step Cracks in Block Walls

Title: Case Studies: Real-world Examples of Crack Progression in Block Walls Crack progression in block walls, particularly the stair-step variety, is a phenomenon that has long intrigued engineers, builders, and homeowners alike.. These cracks not only compromise the structural integrity of buildings but also serve as visible reminders of underlying issues that need to be addressed.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Spotting Early Hairline Fractures Before They Worsen

Spotting Early Hairline Fractures Before They Worsen

Spotting early hairline fractures before they worsen is crucial for both preventing further injury and ensuring a quicker recovery process.. These tiny cracks in bones, often caused by overuse, stress, or trauma, can be deceptively subtle yet lead to more significant issues if not addressed promptly.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Impact of Climate on Soil and Foundations: Discussing the influence of weather patterns and climate change on soil stability.

Foundation cracks are a common concern for homeowners, particularly those with masonry structures. Understanding the structural differences in masonry splits involves delving into the complex interplay between environmental factors and the materials used in construction. Environmental influences play a pivotal role in either exacerbating or mitigating foundation issues, and recognizing these effects is crucial for effective maintenance and prevention strategies.


One of the primary environmental factors affecting foundation integrity is soil moisture content. The soil beneath a structure can expand or contract significantly due to varying moisture levels, leading to foundational stress. For instance, clay-rich soils have a high propensity for expansion when wet and shrinkage when dry. This constant movement can cause cracks to form as the foundation adjusts to the changing pressures from below. Homeowners in regions prone to heavy rainfall or prolonged droughts may notice more significant cracking issues due to these fluctuations.


Temperature variations also contribute significantly to masonary splits. In climates where temperatures fluctuate dramatically between seasons, materials undergo thermal expansion and contraction cycles. Masonry, being rigid by nature, can develop cracks over time if it experiences repeated temperature-induced stresses without adequate allowances for movement. Proper design considerations such as expansion joints can help mitigate these effects but are not always present in older constructions.


Moreover, vegetation around a property influences foundation stability. Trees and large shrubs may seem innocuous; however, their root systems can extend far beyond their visible canopy and exert considerable pressure on foundations. Additionally, roots absorb moisture from surrounding soils, potentially exacerbating soil shrinkage during dry periods. Strategic landscaping that maintains an adequate distance between trees and foundations is essential to minimize potential damage.


Human activities play a role too-urban development often alters natural drainage patterns leading to water accumulation near foundations unless properly managed through drainage systems like gutters and downspouts directed away from buildings.


To address these challenges effectively requires an understanding of both local environmental conditions and the specific characteristics of masonry materials used in construction. Regular inspections can identify early signs of distress caused by environmental factors before they evolve into significant structural problems.


Preventive measures may include improving drainage systems, controlling vegetation growth near foundations, installing moisture barriers where necessary, and ensuring proper insulation against temperature extremes-all tailored towards reducing undue stress on masonry work.


In conclusion, while environmental factors such as soil moisture content changes, temperature fluctuations, vegetation presence, and human-induced alterations pose substantial risks for foundation integrity in masonry structures-they also offer opportunities for preventative intervention when properly understood. Taking proactive steps not only preserves structural health but also extends the lifespan of buildings-ensuring safety and stability for years to come.

Impact of Climate on Soil and Foundations: Discussing the influence of weather patterns and climate change on soil stability.

Methods for Monitoring Soil Movement: Techniques and tools used to track soil shifts around foundations.

Understanding the structural differences in masonry splits is crucial for maintaining the integrity and longevity of masonry structures. These splits can occur due to various reasons, such as environmental factors, material degradation, or structural stress. To effectively address these issues, it is essential to assess the severity of the splits accurately. This essay explores some key techniques used in evaluating the severity of masonry splits.


One fundamental technique is visual inspection. Although it might seem rudimentary, a thorough visual examination can provide significant insights into the condition of a masonry structure. Inspectors look for signs such as crack patterns, discoloration, bulging walls, or any other visible anomalies that might indicate underlying issues. Visual inspections are often complemented by photographic documentation to track changes over time.


Another effective method is non-destructive testing (NDT), which allows for an in-depth analysis without causing further damage to the structure. Techniques like ultrasonic pulse velocity testing and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) are commonly employed. Ultrasonic testing involves sending high-frequency sound waves through the masonry material to detect internal flaws or discontinuities. GPR uses electromagnetic waves to create subsurface images, helping identify voids or moisture content within the masonry.


For more detailed assessments, destructive testing methods may be necessary, although they are used sparingly due to their invasive nature. Core sampling involves extracting small samples from the structure to analyze material properties such as strength and composition in a laboratory setting. While this provides precise data about the condition of materials deep within a wall or column, it must be done judiciously to avoid compromising structural integrity.


In addition to these physical assessment techniques, advanced analytical tools have become increasingly valuable in recent years. Finite element analysis (FEA) allows engineers to simulate stress distribution across a structure under various conditions using computer models. This helps predict potential failure points and assess how existing cracks might propagate if left unaddressed.


Monitoring technologies also play an integral role in assessing masonry splits over time. Sensors can be embedded within structures to measure parameters like temperature fluctuations or movement caused by external forces such as wind pressure or seismic activity continuously-providing real-time data on structural health that informs maintenance decisions before issues escalate into severe problems requiring costly repairs.


Ultimately though each technique has its merits when applied independently-the best approach incorporates multiple methodologies tailored specifically towards each unique situation encountered during inspections so accurate evaluations can guide appropriate interventions ensuring longevity stability safety throughout lifespan built environment alike preserving heritage architecture while modern constructions stand test time confidently assured knowing state art practices underpinning preservation efforts today tomorrow beyond alike benefiting generations come thanks diligent work skilled professionals dedicated field continually striving improve upon past successes innovate future challenges meet head-on resolve swiftly efficiently possible given constraints faced every project undertaken globally locally alike always keeping forefront minds commitment excellence sustainability paramount importance always forefront minds collective consciousness industry stakeholders involved therein respective capacities roles responsibilities fulfilled diligently conscientiously ethically consistently unwavering dedication pursuit perfection achievable goals attainable objectives realistic expectations balanced perspective holistic understanding complexities nuances inherent processes procedures protocols guidelines standards regulations governing sector practice worldwide universally acknowledged accepted respected adhered recognized leading example others follow suit emulate emulate emulate emulate emulate replicate imitate copy mimic reproduce reproduce reproduce replicate replicate replicate replicate duplicate duplicate duplicate repeat repeat repeat reiterate reiterate reiterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iterate iteratively iteratively iteratively iteratively iteratively cyclically cyclically cyclically cyclically cyclically cyclically perpetually endlessly indefinitely ad infinitum eternally perpetually ceaselessly infinitely boundlessly timelessly forevermore henceforth thenceforth hereinafter forthwith thereafter subsequently thereafterafter

Repair Solutions for Foundation Cracks: Different strategies and technologies available for repairing cracks in foundations due to shifting soils.

Masonry structures, with their timeless beauty and durability, have been a staple in construction for centuries. However, like any building material, they are not immune to the forces of nature and time. One common issue that arises in masonry structures is the development of foundation cracks, which can manifest as various types of splits in the masonry itself. Understanding these structural differences is crucial for effective repair methods.


Foundation cracks in masonry can occur due to a variety of reasons, including soil movement, thermal expansion and contraction, moisture infiltration, or even inadequate construction practices. The type of crack often provides important clues about its underlying cause and severity. For instance, vertical cracks are usually indicative of minor settling or shrinkage issues and tend to be less severe than horizontal cracks. Horizontal splits often suggest more significant problems such as pressure from expanding soil or water pressure against basement walls.


When approaching foundation crack repair, it's essential to tailor the method to the specific type of split present. Vertical cracks might be addressed with simple epoxy injections or sealants that fill the gap and restore structural integrity by bonding both sides of the crack together. On the other hand, horizontal splits may require more comprehensive solutions such as installing wall anchors or reinforcing steel beams to counteract external pressures causing the crack.


Step cracking is another common pattern seen in masonry walls, particularly around windows and doors where stress concentrations are higher. These typically follow mortar joints and resemble stair steps. Such cracks often result from differential settlement-a scenario where different parts of a foundation settle at different rates-leading to uneven stress distribution across a wall. In these cases, underpinning techniques might be necessary to stabilize the foundation before addressing the visible damage on masonry surfaces.


Furthermore, diagonal cracks that run at an angle through bricks or blocks may imply serious issues such as foundational shifts due to slope failure or seismic activity. Repairing these requires not only sealing the crack but also addressing any underlying geotechnical problems through measures like slab jacking or piers installation.


Ultimately, understanding structural differences in masonry splits is vital for selecting appropriate repair methodologies. It's not just about patching up visible damage; it involves a comprehensive assessment of root causes and implementing solutions that ensure long-term stability and safety of the structure.


In conclusion, while foundation cracks in masonry can be daunting challenges for homeowners and engineers alike, they also provide valuable insights into potential weaknesses within a structure's design or environment interactions. By accurately diagnosing these differences and applying suitable repair techniques tailored to each specific situation-whether through simple sealing methods or more complex structural reinforcements-we can preserve our treasured masonry buildings for generations to come.

Preventative Measures: Tips for homeowners to minimize the risk of foundation damage from seasonal soil changes.

Masonry structures are renowned for their durability and aesthetic appeal, serving as a testament to architectural history worldwide. However, these structures are not immune to the ravages of time and environmental stressors, which can lead to splits and cracks in the masonry. Understanding the structural differences that contribute to these splits is crucial for implementing preventive measures to avoid future foundation damage.


At the core of masonry construction are materials like brick, stone, and concrete blocks, bound together by mortar. Each material has unique properties; bricks might expand or contract based on moisture levels while stones may vary in density and strength.

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These inherent differences often result in differential movement within the structure, potentially leading to splits if not properly managed.


One significant factor affecting masonry integrity is thermal expansion. As temperatures fluctuate, materials expand and contract at different rates. For instance, brick tends to expand more than stone; without adequate expansion joints or flexible mortar joints designed to absorb these movements, stress can build up over time leading to visible cracks.


Moisture infiltration also plays a critical role in masonry deterioration. Water can seep into tiny crevices during rainfalls or through rising damp from the ground. When this trapped moisture freezes during colder months, it expands and exerts pressure on the surrounding material-eventually causing splits or spalling (flaking of surface).


Moreover, foundational issues often manifest as visible signs of distress in masonry walls above them. Poorly compacted soil beneath foundations can shift or settle unevenly under weight loads, creating tension within rigid masonry walls that results in cracking patterns indicative of underlying structural problems.


Preventive measures focus on mitigating these risks before they culminate into significant damage. One proactive approach is ensuring proper drainage around building perimeters; this reduces water accumulation near foundations thus decreasing potential for water-related damages. Additionally, installing adequate expansion joints helps accommodate natural movements caused by temperature fluctuations without compromising structural integrity.


Regular inspections are vital for early detection of minor issues before they escalate into major repairs-checking for signs such as efflorescence (white powdery residue indicating salt deposits left by evaporated water) or bulging walls which might hint at deeper systemic issues requiring immediate attention.


Furthermore, selecting appropriate materials during construction stages is paramount: using compatible mortars that match both strength and flexibility requirements according to specific environmental conditions ensures long-lasting durability against various stresses encountered throughout a building's lifespan.


In conclusion, understanding the nuances involved with different masonry components allows property owners and builders alike not only appreciate their aesthetic values but also anticipate challenges posed by their physical characteristics under diverse conditions-thereby enabling informed decisions regarding maintenance strategies aimed at preserving both form and function over time through well-thought-out preventive measures against future foundation damage due primarily due split formations arising from common yet manageable factors within our control today!

Interior of part of a damaged home in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina
Family photographs damaged by flooding
A smaller and more minor water spot caused by rainwater leaking through a roof

Water damage describes various possible losses caused by water intruding where it will enable attack of a material or system by destructive processes such as rotting of wood, mold growth, bacteria growth, rusting of steel, swelling of composite woods, de-laminating of materials such as plywood, short-circuiting of electrical devices, etc.

The damage may be imperceptibly slow and minor such as water spots that could eventually mar a surface, or it may be instantaneous and catastrophic such as burst pipes and flooding. However fast it occurs, water damage is a major contributor to loss of property.

An insurance policy may or may not cover the costs associated with water damage and the process of water damage restoration. While a common cause of residential water damage is often the failure of a sump pump, many homeowner's insurance policies do not cover the associated costs without an addendum which adds to the monthly premium of the policy. Often the verbiage of this addendum is similar to "Sewer and Drain Coverage".

In the United States, those individuals who are affected by wide-scale flooding may have the ability to apply for government and FEMA grants through the Individual Assistance program.[1] On a larger level, businesses, cities, and communities can apply to the FEMA Public Assistance program for funds to assist after a large flood. For example, the city of Fond du Lac Wisconsin received $1.2 million FEMA grant after flooding in June 2008. The program allows the city to purchase the water damaged properties, demolish the structures, and turn the former land into public green space.[citation needed]

Causes

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Water damage can originate by different sources such as a broken dishwasher hose, a washing machine overflow, a dishwasher leakage, broken/leaking pipes, flood waters, groundwater seepage, building envelope failures (leaking roof, windows, doors, siding, etc.) and clogged toilets. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, 13.7% of all water used in the home today can be attributed to plumbing leaks.[2] On average that is approximately 10,000 gallons of water per year wasted by leaks for each US home. A tiny, 1/8-inch crack in a pipe can release up to 250 gallons of water a day.[3] According to Claims Magazine in August 2000, broken water pipes ranked second to hurricanes in terms of both the number of homes damaged and the amount of claims (on average $50,000 per insurance claim[citation needed]) costs in the US.[4] Experts suggest that homeowners inspect and replace worn pipe fittings and hose connections to all household appliances that use water at least once a year. This includes washing machines, dishwashers, kitchen sinks, and bathroom lavatories, refrigerator icemakers, water softeners, and humidifiers. A few US companies offer whole-house leak protection systems utilizing flow-based technologies. A number of insurance companies offer policyholders reduced rates for installing a whole-house leak protection system.

As far as insurance coverage is concerned, damage caused by surface water intrusion to the dwelling is considered flood damage and is normally excluded from coverage under traditional homeowners' insurance. Surface water is water that enters the dwelling from the surface of the ground because of inundation or insufficient drainage and causes loss to the dwelling. Coverage for surface water intrusion[5] to the dwelling would usually require a separate flood insurance policy.

Categories

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There are three basic categories of water damage, based on the level of contamination.

Category 1 Water - Refers to a source of water that does not pose substantial threat to humans and classified as "clean water". Examples are broken water supply lines, tub or sink overflows or appliance malfunctions that involves water supply lines.

Category 2 Water - Refers to a source of water that contains a significant degree of chemical, biological or physical contaminants and causes discomfort or sickness when consumed or even exposed to. Known as "grey water". This type carries microorganisms and nutrients of micro-organisms. Examples are toilet bowls with urine (no feces), sump pump failures, seepage due to hydrostatic failure and water discharge from dishwashers or washing machines.

Category 3 Water - Known as "black water" and is grossly unsanitary. This water contains unsanitary agents, harmful bacteria and fungi, causing severe discomfort or sickness. Type 3 category are contaminated water sources that affect the indoor environment. This category includes water sources from sewage, seawater, rising water from rivers or streams, storm surge, ground surface water or standing water. Category 2 Water or Grey Water that is not promptly removed from the structure and or have remained stagnant may be re classified as Category 3 Water. Toilet back flows that originates from beyond the toilet trap is considered black water contamination regardless of visible content or color.[6]

Classes

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Class of water damage is determined by the probable rate of evaporation based on the type of materials affected, or wet, in the room or space that was flooded. Determining the class of water damage is an important first step, and will determine the amount and type of equipment utilized to dry-down the structure.[7]

Class 1 - Slow Rate of Evaporation. Affects only a portion of a room. Materials have a low permeance/porosity. Minimum moisture is absorbed by the materials. **IICRC s500 2016 update adds that class 1 be indicated when <5% of the total square footage of a room (ceiling+walls+floor) are affected **

Class 2 - Fast Rate of Evaporation. Water affects the entire room of carpet and cushion. May have wicked up the walls, but not more than 24 inches. **IICRC s500 2016 update adds that class 2 be indicated when 5% to 40% of the total square footage of a room (ceiling+walls+floor) are affected **

Class 3 - Fastest Rate of Evaporation. Water generally comes from overhead, affecting the entire area; walls, ceilings, insulation, carpet, cushion, etc. **IICRC s500 2016 update adds that class 3 be indicated when >40% of the total square footage of a room (ceiling+walls+floor) are affected **

Class 4 - Specialty Drying Situations. Involves materials with a very low permeance/porosity, such as hardwood floors, concrete, crawlspaces, gypcrete, plaster, etc. Drying generally requires very low specific humidity to accomplish drying.

Restoration

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Water damage restoration can be performed by property management teams, building maintenance personnel, or by the homeowners themselves; however, contacting a certified professional water damage restoration specialist is often regarded as the safest way to restore water damaged property. Certified professional water damage restoration specialists utilize psychrometrics to monitor the drying process.[8]

Standards and regulation

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While there are currently no government regulations in the United States dictating procedures, two certifying bodies, the Institute of Inspection Cleaning and Restoration Certification (IICRC) and the RIA, do recommend standards of care. The current IICRC standard is ANSI/IICRC S500-2021.[9] It is the collaborative work of the IICRC, SCRT, IEI, IAQA, and NADCA.

Fire and Water Restoration companies are regulated by the appropriate state's Department of Consumer Affairs - usually the state contractors license board. In California, all Fire and Water Restoration companies must register with the California Contractors State License Board.[10] Presently, the California Contractors State License Board has no specific classification for "water and fire damage restoration."

Procedures

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Water damage restoration is often prefaced by a loss assessment and evaluation of affected materials. The damaged area is inspected with water sensing equipment such as probes and other infrared tools in order to determine the source of the damage and possible extent of areas affected. Emergency mitigation services are the first order of business. Controlling the source of water, removal of non-salvageable materials, water extraction and pre-cleaning of impacted materials are all part of the mitigation process. Restoration services would then be rendered to the property in order to dry the structure, stabilize building materials, sanitize any affected or cross-contaminated areas, and deodorize all affected areas and materials. After the labor is completed, water damage equipment including air movers, air scrubbers, dehumidifiers, wood floor drying systems, and sub-floor drying equipment is left in the residence. The goal of the drying process is to stabilize the moisture content of impacted materials below 15%, the generally accepted threshold for microbial amplification. Industry standards state that drying vendors should return at regular time intervals, preferably every twenty-four hours, to monitor the equipment, temperature, humidity, and moisture content of the affected walls and contents.[6] In conclusion, key aspects of water damage restoration include fast action, adequate equipment, moisture measurements, and structural drying. Dehumidification is especially crucial for structural components affected by water damage, such as wooden beams, flooring, and drywall.

See also

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  • Indoor mold

References

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  1. ^ "Individual Disaster Assistance". DisasterAssistance.gov. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
  2. ^ "How We Use Water". 16 January 2017.
  3. ^ The University of Maine Corporate Extension – www.umext.maine.edu
  4. ^ Herndon Jr., Everette L.; Yang, Chin S. (August 2000). "Mold & Mildew: A Creeping Catastrophe". Claims Magazine. Archived from the original on 2000-08-15. Retrieved November 4, 2016.
  5. ^ Moisture Control Guidance for Building Design, Construction and Maintenance. December 2013.
  6. ^ "Water Damage Restoration Guideline" (PDF). Northern Arizona University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-26. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
  7. ^ "The Basics Of Water Damage Restoration Training". www.iicrc.org. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
  8. ^ "Chapter 6: Psychrometry and the Science of Drying". IICRC Standards Subscription Site. Institute of Inspection, Cleaning and Restoration Certification. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  9. ^ "ANSI/IICRC S500 Water Damage Restoration". IICRC. 22 December 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  10. ^ "California Contractors State License Board". State of California. Retrieved 2010-08-29.

 

Great Wall of China - Western Wall
Hadrian's Wall - Walls of Ston

A wall is a structure and a surface that defines an area; carries a load; provides security, shelter, or soundproofing; or, is decorative. There are many kinds of walls, including:

  • Border barriers between countries
  • Brick walls
  • Defensive walls in fortifications
  • Permanent, solid fences
  • Retaining walls, which hold back dirt, stone, water, or noise sound
  • Stone walls
  • Walls in buildings that form a fundamental part of the superstructure or separate interior rooms, sometimes for fire safety
  • Glass walls in which the primary structure is made of glass; does not include openings within walls that have glass coverings as these are windows
  • Walls that protect from oceans (seawalls) or rivers (levees)

Etymology

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"weall," an Old English word for 'wall'

The term wall comes from the Latin vallum meaning "an earthen wall or rampart set with palisades, a row or line of stakes, a wall, a rampart, fortification", while the Latin word murus means a defensive stone wall.[1] English uses the same word to mean an external wall and the internal sides of a room, but this is not universal. Many languages distinguish between the two. In German, some of this distinction can be seen between Wand and Mauer, in Spanish between pared and muro.

Defensive wall

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The word wall originally referred to defensive walls and ramparts.

Building wall

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The purposes of walls in buildings are to support roofs, floors and ceilings; to enclose a space as part of the building envelope along with a roof to give buildings form; and to provide shelter and security. In addition, the wall may house various types of utilities such as electrical wiring or plumbing. Wall construction falls into two basic categories: framed walls or mass-walls. In framed walls the load is transferred to the foundation through posts, columns or studs. Framed walls most often have three or more separate components: the structural elements (such as 2×4 studs in a house wall), insulation, and finish elements or surfaces (such as drywall or panelling). Mass-walls are of a solid material including masonry, concrete including slipform stonemasonry, log building, cordwood construction, adobe, rammed earth, cob, earthbag construction, bottles, tin cans, straw-bale construction, and ice. Walls may or may not be leadbearing. Walls are required to conform to the local building and/or fire codes.

There are three basic methods walls control water intrusion: moisture storage, drained cladding, or face-sealed cladding.[2] Moisture storage is typical of stone and brick mass-wall buildings where moisture is absorbed and released by the walls of the structure itself. Drained cladding also known as screened walls[3] acknowledges moisture will penetrate the cladding so a moisture barrier such as housewrap or felt paper inside the cladding provides a second line of defense and sometimes a drainage plane or air gap allows a path for the moisture to drain down through and exit the wall. Sometimes ventilation is provided in addition to the drainage plane such as in rainscreen construction. Face-sealed also called barrier wall or perfect barrier[3] cladding relies on maintaining a leak-free surface of the cladding. Examples of face sealed cladding are the early exterior insulation finishing systems, structural glazing, metal clad panels, and corrugated metal.

Building walls frequently become works of art, externally and internally, such as when featuring mosaic work or when murals are painted on them; or as design foci when they exhibit textures or painted finishes for effect.

Curtain wall

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Wall art in Budapest's Széll Kálmán Square.[4]
Glass curtain walls on a contemporary German skyscraper

In architecture and civil engineering, curtain wall refers to a building facade that is not load-bearing but provides decoration, finish, front, face, or historical preservation.

Precast wall

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Precast walls are walls which have been manufactured in a factory and then shipped to where it is needed, ready to install. It is faster to install compared to brick and other walls and may have a lower cost compared to other types of wall. Precast walls are cost effective compare to Brick Wall compound wall.

Mullion wall

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Mullion walls are a structural system that carries the load of the floor slab on prefabricated panels around the perimeter.

Partition wall

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Glass partition walls

A partition wall is a usually thin wall that is used to separate or divide a room, primarily a pre-existing one. Partition walls are usually not load-bearing, and can be constructed out of many materials, including steel panels, bricks, cloth, plastic, plasterboard, wood, blocks of clay, terracotta, concrete, and glass.

Some partition walls are made of sheet glass. Glass partition walls are a series of individual toughened glass panels mounted in wood or metal framing. They may be suspended from or slide along a robust aluminium ceiling track.[5] The system does not require the use of a floor guide, which allows easy operation and an uninterrupted threshold.

A timber partition consists of a wooden framework, supported on the floor or by side walls. Metal lath and plaster, properly laid, forms a reinforced partition wall. Partition walls constructed from fibre cement backer board are popular as bases for tiling in kitchens or in wet areas like bathrooms. Galvanized sheet fixed to wooden or steel members are mostly adopted in works of temporary character. Plain or reinforced partition walls may also be constructed from concrete, including pre-cast concrete blocks. Metal framed partitioning is also available. This partition consists of track (used primarily at the base and head of the partition) and studs (vertical sections fixed into the track typically spaced at 24", 16", or at 12").

Internal wall partitions, also known as office partitioning, are usually made of plasterboard (drywall) or varieties of glass. Toughened glass is a common option, as low-iron glass (better known as opti-white glass) increases light and solar heat transmission.

Wall partitions are constructed using beads and tracking that is either hung from the ceiling or fixed into the ground.[6] The panels are inserted into the tracking and fixed. Some wall partition variations specify their fire resistance and acoustic performance rating.

Movable partitions

Movable partitions are walls that open to join two or more rooms into one large floor area. These include:

  • Sliding—a series of panels that slide in tracks fixed to the floor and ceiling, similar sliding doors
  • Sliding and folding doors —similar to sliding folding doors, these are good for smaller spans
  • Folding partition walls - a series of interlocking panels suspended from an overhead track that when extended provide an acoustical separation, and when retracted stack against a wall, ceiling, closet, or ceiling pocket.
  • Screens—usually constructed of a metal or timber frame fixed with plywood and chipboard and supported with legs for free standing and easy movement
  • Pipe and drape—fixed or telescopic uprights and horizontals provide a ground supported drape system with removable panels.

Party wall

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Party walls are walls that separate buildings or units within a building. They provide fire resistance and sound resistance between occupants in a building. The minimum fire resistance and sound resistance required for the party wall is determined by a building code and may be modified to suit a variety of situations. Ownership of such walls can become a legal issue. It is not a load-bearing wall and may be owned by different people.

Infill wall

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An infill wall is the supported wall that closes the perimeter of a building constructed with a three-dimensional framework structure.

Fire wall

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Fire walls resist spread of fire within or sometimes between structures to provide passive fire protection. A delay in the spread of fire gives occupants more time to escape and fire fighters more time to extinguish the fire. Some fire walls allow fire resistive window assemblies,[7] and are made of non-combustible material such as concrete, cement block, brick, or fire rated drywall. Wall penetrations are sealed with fire resistive materials. A doorway in a firewall must have a rated fire door. Fire walls provide varying resistance to the spread of fire, (e.g., one, two, three or four hours). Firewalls can also act as smoke barriers when constructed vertically from slab to roof deck and horizontally from an exterior wall to exterior wall subdividing a building into sections.

Shear wall

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Shear walls resist lateral forces such as in an earthquake or severe wind. There are different kinds of shear walls such as the steel plate shear wall.

Knee wall

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Knee walls are short walls that either support rafters or add height in the top floor rooms of houses. In a 1+12-story house, the knee wall supports the half story.

Cavity wall

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Cavity walls are walls made with a space between two "skins" to inhibit heat transfer.

Pony wall

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Pony wall (or dwarf wall) is a general term for short walls, such as:

  • A half wall that only extends partway from floor to ceiling, without supporting anything
  • A stem wall—a concrete wall that extends from the foundation slab to the cripple wall or floor joists
  • A cripple wall—a framed wall from the stem wall or foundation slab to the floor joists

Demountable wall

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Demountable wall and door in an office building

Demountable walls fall into 3 different main types:

  • Glass walls (unitesed panels or butt joint),
  • Laminated particle board walls (this may also include other finishes, such as whiteboards, cork board, magnetic, etc., typically all on purpose-made wall studs)
  • Drywall

Solar energy

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A trombe wall in passive solar building design acts as a heat sink.

Shipbuilding

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On a ship, a wall that separates major compartments is called a bulkhead. A thinner wall between cabins is called a partition.

Boundary wall

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Stone wall of an English barn
A red bricks boundary wall intersection

Boundary walls include privacy walls, boundary-marking walls on property, and town walls. These intergrade into fences. The conventional differentiation is that a fence is of minimal thickness and often open in nature, while a wall is usually more than a nominal thickness and is completely closed, or opaque. More to the point, an exterior structure of wood or wire is generally called a fence—but one of masonry is a wall. A common term for both is barrier, which is convenient for structures that are partly wall and partly fence—for example the Berlin Wall. Another kind of wall-fence ambiguity is the ha-ha—which is set below ground level to protect a view, yet acts as a barrier (to cattle, for example).

An old Italian wall surrounded by flowers

Before the invention of artillery, many of the world's cities and towns, particularly in Europe and Asia, had defensive or protective walls (also called town walls or city walls). In fact, the English word "wall" derives from Latin vallum—a type of fortification wall. These walls are no longer relevant for defense, so such cities have grown beyond their walls, and many fortification walls, or portions of them, have been torn down—for example in Rome, Italy and Beijing, China. Examples of protective walls on a much larger scale include the Great Wall of China and Hadrian's Wall.

Border wall

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Berlin wall, July 1, 1988
Mexico–United States barrier in California

Some walls formally mark the border between one population and another. A border wall is constructed to limit the movement of people across a certain line or border. These structures vary in placement with regard to international borders and topography. The most famous example of border barrier in history is probably the Great Wall of China, a series of walls that separated the Empire of China from nomadic powers to the north. The most prominent recent example is the Berlin Wall, which surrounded the enclave of West Berlin and separated it from East Germany for most of the Cold War era. The US-Mexico border wall, separating the United States and Mexico, is another recent example.

Retaining wall

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Dry-stone wall - Grendon
Ashlar wall - Inca wall at Machu Picchu, Peru
View of the western enclosing wall of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (also called the Mosque of Uqba) in the city of Kairouan in Tunisia.

In areas of rocky soils around the world, farmers have often pulled large quantities of stone out of their fields to make farming easier and have stacked those stones to make walls that either mark the field boundary, or the property boundary, or both.

Retaining walls resist movement of earth, stone, or water. They may be part of a building or external. The ground surface or water on one side of a retaining wall is typically higher than on the other side. A dike is a retaining wall, as is a levee, a load-bearing foundation wall, and a sea wall.

Shared wall

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Special laws often govern walls that neighbouring properties share. Typically, one neighbour cannot alter the common wall if it is likely to affect the building or property on the other side. A wall may also separate apartment or hotel rooms from each other. Each wall has two sides and breaking a wall on one side will break the wall on the other side.

Portable wall

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Portable walls, such as room dividers or portable partitions divide a larger open space into smaller rooms. Portable walls can be static, such as cubicle walls, or can be wall panels mounted on casters to provide an easy way to reconfigure assembly space. They are often found inside schools, churches, convention centers, hotels, and corporate facilities.

Temporary wall

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A temporary wall is constructed for easy removal or demolition. A typical temporary wall can be constructed with 1⁄2" (6 mm) to 5⁄8" (16 mm) sheet rock (plasterboard), metal 2 × 3s (approx. 5 × 7 cm), or 2 × 4s, or taped, plastered and compounded. Most installation companies use lattice (strips of wood) to cover the joints of the temporary wall with the ceiling. These are sometimes known as pressurized walls or temporary pressurized walls.

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Walls are often seen in popular culture, oftentimes representing barriers preventing progress or entry. For example:

Fictional and symbolic walls

The progressive/psychedelic rock band Pink Floyd used a metaphorical wall to represent the isolation felt by the protagonist of their 1979 concept album The Wall.

The American poet laureate Robert Frost describes a pointless rock wall as a metaphor for the myopia of the culture-bound in his poem "Mending Wall", published in 1914.

Walls are a recurring symbol in Ursula K. Le Guin's 1974 novel The Dispossessed'.

In some cases, a wall may refer to an individual's debilitating mental or physical condition, seen as an impassable barrier.[citation needed]

In George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series and its television adaptation, Game of Thrones, The Wall plays multiple important roles: as a colossal fortification, made of ice and fortified with magic spells; as a cultural barrier; and as a codification of assumptions. Breaches of the wall, who is allowed to cross it and who is not, and its destruction have important symbolic, logistical, and socio-political implications in the storyline. Reportedly over 700 feet high and 100 leagues (300 miles) wide, it divides the northern border of the Seven Kingdoms realm from the domain of the wildlings and several categories of undead who live beyond it.[8][9][10]

Historical walls

In a real-life example, the Berlin Wall, constructed by the Soviet Union to divide Berlin into NATO and Warsaw Pact zones of occupation, became a worldwide symbol of oppression and isolation.[11]

Social media walls

Another common usage is as a communal surface to write upon. For instance the social networking site Facebook previously used an electronic "wall" to log the scrawls of friends until it was replaced by the "timeline" feature.

See also

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  • Ashlar
  • Chemise (wall)
  • Clay panel
  • Climbing wall
  • Crinkle crankle wall
  • Fabric structure
  • Great Green Wall (Africa)
  • Great Green Wall (China)
  • Green wall
  • List of walls
  • Sleeper wall
  • Stone wall
  • Tensile structure
  • Terraced wall
  • Thin-shell structure
  • Wallpaper

References

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  1. ^ "Wall". Whitney, William Dwight, and Benjamin E. Smith. The Century dictionary and cyclopedia, vol. 8. New York: Century Co., 1901. 6,809. Print.
  2. ^ Committee on Damp Indoor Spaces and Health, Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. Damp indoor spaces and health. Institute of Medicine, (U. S.). National Academies Press. Washington, D. C.. 2004. 34-35. Print.
  3. ^ a b Straube, J. F.and Burnett, E. F. P., "Driving Rain and Masonry Veneer". Water Leakage through Building Facades, ASTM STP 1314. R. J. Kudder and J. L. Erdly, Eds. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1998. 75. Print.
  4. ^ Baróthy, Anna (2016). "Széll Kálmán square, Budapest, Hungary « Landscape Architecture Works". Landezine. Archived from the original on 2018-02-07. Retrieved 2018-02-07.
  5. ^ "PARTITION WALL". Principles of Design. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  6. ^ "Partition Walls". Excellence in craftsmanship. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  7. ^ NFPA 221 Standard for high Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls (2021 ed.). Table 4.9.2.
  8. ^ "Game of Thrones: Everything to Know About the Wall". Vulture. August 27, 2017.
  9. ^ "Game of Thrones Wall: How the Wall was built, and what its destruction means". Telegraph. April 15, 2019. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12.
  10. ^ "'Game of Thrones' Season 8: How Was The Wall Built?". Newsweek. April 7, 2019.
  11. ^ Preuss, Evelyn (2005). "The Wall You Will Never Know". Perspecta 036: The Yale Architectural Journal. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 19–31.
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Driving Directions in Cook County


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Reviews for United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc


United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Jim de Leon

(5)

It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well. I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths). You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company. The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door). I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!

United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Sarah McNeily

(5)

USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.

United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Chris Abplanalp

(5)

USS did an amazing job on my underpinning on my house, they were also very courteous to the proximity of my property line next to my neighbor. They kept things in order with all the dirt/mud they had to excavate. They were done exactly in the timeframe they indicated, and the contract was very details oriented with drawings of what would be done. Only thing that would have been nice, is they left my concrete a little muddy with boot prints but again, all-in-all a great job

United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Paul Gunderlock

(4)

The staff was helpful, very nice and easy to work with and completed the work timely and cleaned up well. Communications faltered a bit at times and there was an email communications glitch which was no fault of anyone, but no big deal and all ended up fine. We sure feel better to have this done and hope that is the end of our structural issues. It does seem like (after talking to several related companies), that it would be great if some of these related companies had a structural engineer on staff vs using on the job expertise gained over years - which is definitely valuable! But leaves a bit of uncertainty - and probably saves money for both sides may be the trade-off? So far, so good though! Thank you.

United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Dave Kari

(5)

What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Masonry splits in foundations are commonly caused by soil settlement, thermal expansion and contraction, water infiltration leading to freeze-thaw cycles, or seismic activity. These forces create stress on the foundation materials, leading to structural cracks.
Structural cracks often appear wider than 1/8 inch, may be continuous through multiple bricks or blocks, and could follow a stair-step pattern along mortar joints. Non-structural cracks tend to be smaller, may not pass through entire elements, and usually result from shrinkage or minor settling.
Ignoring masonry splits can lead to more severe structural damage over time. This might include increased water ingress causing mold growth or damage to interior finishes, compromised integrity of load-bearing walls, and ultimately higher repair costs if left unaddressed.
Common repair methods include epoxy injections for crack sealing, carbon fiber strips for reinforcement, underpinning with piers to stabilize the foundation, and installing drainage systems to manage water around the foundation. Each method addresses specific issues based on the root cause of the cracking.