Monitoring Spreading Lines With Simple Measuring Tools

Monitoring Spreading Lines With Simple Measuring Tools

Seasonal Soil Changes: Explanation of how various seasons contribute to soil expansion and contraction.

Crack monitoring is a crucial aspect of maintaining structural integrity in various infrastructures, such as buildings, bridges, and roads. Simple measuring tools play an instrumental role in this process, offering a cost-effective and straightforward means of tracking changes over time. This essay provides an overview of some commonly used simple measuring tools for crack monitoring and discusses their application in the context of monitoring spreading lines.


One of the most basic yet effective tools for crack monitoring is the crack gauge or tell-tale. Regular inspections help detect cracks early Foundation Cracks Foundation carbon. These devices are typically composed of two overlapping plates that are affixed on either side of a crack. As the crack widens or shifts, the movement between these plates can be easily quantified using a calibrated scale printed on them. Crack gauges are favored for their simplicity and ease of use, making them suitable for both professionals and non-specialists involved in routine inspections.


Another prevalent tool is the use of calibrated rulers or crack width cards. These tools provide a quick assessment by directly measuring the width of surface cracks at regular intervals.

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While they may not offer continuous monitoring like electronic devices, they serve as an excellent baseline method to document initial conditions and any subsequent changes observed during periodic inspections.


Mechanical extensometers also find frequent application in monitoring cracks. Unlike electronic versions that require power sources and data loggers, mechanical extensometers rely on simple mechanical principles to measure displacement across cracks with high precision. By anchoring these instruments securely across a fissure, one can gather reliable data on its progression over time without needing advanced technical knowledge.


In addition to these manual methods, photographic documentation remains one of the simplest yet powerful ways to monitor cracks. Regularly capturing images from consistent angles allows inspectors to compare visual evidence over time visually. This approach helps identify subtle variations that might go unnoticed with other methods alone while providing clear records for future reference.


The choice among these simple measuring tools often depends on specific needs such as accuracy requirements, environmental conditions, duration of monitoring activities involved as well budget considerations available resources accessible stakeholders responsible maintenance operations structures under scrutiny addressed promptly effectively insightfully manner possible given circumstances surrounding particular situation encountered fieldwork undertaken respective domains expertise engaged therein accordingly thereby ensuring safe secure sustainable environments communities societies depend interrelated interconnected systems support daily lives livelihoods aspirations ambitions endeavors undertaken collectively individually alike shared goals objectives aspirations fostered nurtured pursued tirelessly passionately purposefully determinedly collaboratively harmoniously respectfully wisely prudently judiciously intelligently innovatively creatively imaginatively thoughtfully reflectively deliberately strategically optimally efficiently sustainably inclusively equitably justly responsibly ethically morally compassionately humanely globally universally timelessly enduringly inspiringly transformatively impactful meaningfully significantly positively constructively progressively proactively dynamically energetically vibrantly vibrantly enthusiastically joyfully gracefully graciously gratefully appreciatively warmly kindly caringly lovingly empathetically sympathetically altruistically generously benevolently charitably magnanimously noble-heartedly selflessly unconditionally wholeheartedly authentically genuinely sincerely truly deeply profoundly richly abundantly fully wholly completely entirely utterly thoroughly comprehensively holistically integrally unified altogether always forever eternally infinitely boundlessly limitlessly endlessly perpetually continuously consistently constantly steadily reliably dependably faithfully steadfastly resolutely unwaveringly unfalteringly indomitably courageously bravely valiantly heroically gallantly gloriously triumphantly victoriously resilient robust strong powerful mighty forceful influential impactful consequential effectual potent vibrant lively spirited animated dynamic energetic enthusiastic passionate zealous fervent ardent earnest sincere dedicated devoted committed focused attentive concentrated absorbed engrossed immersed engaged involved participative active proactive innovative creative imaginative visionary progressive forward-thinking pioneering groundbreaking trailblazing pathfinding frontier-breaking cutting-edge leading-edge state

Monitoring spreading lines effectively is a crucial task in various fields, from agriculture to construction, ensuring that tasks are carried out with precision and efficiency. Utilizing simple measuring tools can make this process both accurate and accessible. This step-by-step guide will walk you through the effective use of these tools, allowing you to maintain high standards in your work.


First, understanding the importance of measurement in monitoring spreading lines is essential. Whether planting seeds at equal distances or laying bricks with exact spacing, precise measurements ensure uniformity and quality. Simple measuring tools such as rulers, tape measures, and string lines are invaluable for achieving this accuracy.


Begin by selecting the right tool for your specific need. For linear measurements, a ruler or tape measure is ideal. These tools are straightforward yet provide the precision required for most tasks. Ensure that your measuring tool is clean and undamaged to avoid inaccurate readings.


Next, prepare the area where you'll be monitoring the spreading line. Clear any debris or obstacles that might interfere with the measurement process. If using a string line, secure it tightly between two fixed points at either end of your spread area. This will serve as a visual guide for maintaining straightness in your line.


Once everything is set up, proceed with taking measurements. Hold the tape measure or ruler firmly against one end of the line without bending it; this ensures an accurate reading. If using a string line, measure from one fixed point to another along the length of the string to confirm even spacing across several intervals.


Recording your measurements accurately is also crucial; consider keeping a logbook or digital record of your findings. This documentation helps track variations over time and allows adjustments to be made if discrepancies arise.


In addition to straightforward length measurements, consider checking angles if applicable to your project using simple protractors or angle finders. Ensuring correct angles prevents misalignment issues that could compromise structural integrity or aesthetic appeal.


Finally, regular calibration of your tools should not be overlooked. Over time, wear and tear can alter their accuracy. Checking them against known standards periodically ensures they remain reliable instruments in your toolkit.


By following these steps diligently-selecting appropriate tools, preparing adequately, measuring carefully, recording findings accurately-you can monitor spreading lines effectively using basic measuring equipment. This approach not only enhances precision but also boosts confidence in delivering consistent results across various projects.


In conclusion, mastering simple measuring tools empowers individuals across numerous disciplines to achieve excellence through meticulous oversight of spreading lines. By adhering to these guidelines with patience and attention to detail, you establish a strong foundation for successful outcomes in any endeavor requiring precise linear management.

The Science Behind Expansive Soils and Foundation Damage

The Science Behind Expansive Soils and Foundation Damage

Expansive soils, a geotechnical challenge affecting construction projects worldwide, are responsible for significant foundation damage.. Understanding the science behind these soils and examining real-world examples is crucial for engineers and builders who aim to mitigate their detrimental impacts.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Evaluating Crack Types to Prevent Long-Term Structural Issues

Evaluating Crack Types to Prevent Long-Term Structural Issues

Cracks in structures are more than just an aesthetic concern; they can be harbingers of deeper, long-term structural issues.. Evaluating crack types to prevent these potential problems is crucial for maintaining the integrity and safety of buildings and infrastructure.

Posted by on 2024-12-31

Impact of Climate on Soil and Foundations: Discussing the influence of weather patterns and climate change on soil stability.

Monitoring the progression of cracks and other structural anomalies is a critical aspect of maintaining the integrity of buildings, bridges, and various infrastructures. As these structures age or are exposed to environmental stressors, cracks can develop and propagate, potentially leading to significant safety hazards if left unchecked. To effectively manage this risk, it is essential to implement best practices for documenting and tracking crack changes over time. This essay explores these best practices with a focus on utilizing simple measuring tools.


Firstly, establishing a baseline measurement is crucial in the monitoring process. This involves conducting an initial inspection to identify existing cracks and document their dimensions using straightforward tools such as rulers or calipers. Photographic evidence can also be invaluable at this stage, providing a visual reference that complements numerical data. These photographs should include scale markers to ensure accurate analysis when comparing with future images.


Once baseline data is established, regular monitoring intervals must be determined based on the specific conditions and requirements of the structure being observed. For instance, high-risk areas may necessitate weekly inspections, while less critical zones might only require monthly checks. Consistency in monitoring intervals helps detect changes promptly and provides a comprehensive dataset for analysis.


Tracking crack progression requires meticulous record-keeping. Simple spreadsheets or dedicated maintenance logs can serve as effective tools for documenting measurements over time. Each entry should detail the date of inspection, specific location of each crack (preferably marked on a diagram), measured dimensions, environmental conditions (such as temperature or humidity), and any notable observations about surrounding material integrity.


In addition to numerical tracking, sketches or diagrams offer another layer of documentation that aids in visualizing crack evolution over time. These representations can help technicians identify patterns in crack growth directionality or clustering in particular areas-insights that might be missed through numeric data alone.


Employing simple measuring gauges such as crack monitors or tell-tales further enhances precision in tracking subtle changes between inspections. These devices are designed to provide continuous readings without requiring sophisticated equipment or expertise-ideal for routine assessments by non-specialist personnel.


Communication plays a vital role in managing structural health effectively; thus sharing findings with relevant stakeholders like engineers, maintenance teams, and safety officers ensures informed decision-making regarding necessary interventions or repairs before minor issues escalate into major failures.


Finally-and perhaps most importantly-is fostering an organizational culture where proactive maintenance is prioritized over reactive solutions post-damage occurrence becomes apparent from neglectful oversight during earlier stages when issues could have been mitigated easily through diligent monitoring efforts described hereinabove earlier discussed within context respective subject matter topic addressed throughout discourse presented above overall encapsulating essence thematic concern central focal point narrative conveyed herein aforementioned treatise submitted heretofore concluded thereby henceforth ending hereby terminus reached conclusion attained achieved completed finalized delivered rendered provided supplied furnished executed implemented enacted performed conducted carried out accomplished fulfilled realized manifested brought forth actualized effectuated instituted operationalized initiated commenced undertaken embarked launched inaugurated commenced instigated stimulated prompted provoked incited aroused inspired energized motivated driven urged encouraged compelled spurred impelled goaded prompted led directed guided steered influenced swayed encouraged advised counseled directed recommended suggested advocated promoted endorsed championed backed supported favored espoused adopted embraced accepted approved sanctioned authorized ratified validated confirmed affirmed upheld vouched attested testified sworn declared stated announced proclaimed pronounced decreed dictated mandated ordered commanded enjoined prescribed stipulated designated specified detailed outlined delineated enumerated listed itemized cataloged inventoried registered documented recorded archived filed stored retained housed preserved conserved safeguarded protected shielded secured defended guarded watched monitored supervised overseen patrolled surveilled checked examined inspected scrutinized investigated probed

Impact of Climate on Soil and Foundations: Discussing the influence of weather patterns and climate change on soil stability.

Methods for Monitoring Soil Movement: Techniques and tools used to track soil shifts around foundations.

Monitoring foundation cracks is an essential aspect of maintaining the structural integrity of a building. While small cracks can be typical as structures settle over time, significant or spreading cracks may indicate more serious issues that require attention. Understanding how to monitor these cracks using simple measuring tools can prevent costly repairs and ensure safety. However, there are common mistakes that people often make when attempting this task.


One frequent mistake is failing to establish a baseline measurement. Without an initial reading, it becomes challenging to determine whether a crack is growing over time. A baseline measurement provides a reference point against which all future measurements can be compared. To set this up effectively, mark the ends of the crack and record its exact length at the outset.


Another error is inconsistent monitoring intervals. Monitoring should be conducted at regular intervals to track any changes accurately. Many individuals either check too sporadically or lose vigilance once they see no immediate change. It's crucial to maintain a consistent schedule-monthly checks are typically sufficient-to capture gradual developments that might otherwise go unnoticed.


Inaccurate measurements due to improper tool use also pose problems. Simple tools like calipers, rulers, or measuring tapes can be effective if used correctly; however, even minor inaccuracies in reading measurements can lead to false conclusions about the crack's progression. Ensure that tools are calibrated properly and used consistently under similar conditions for each monitoring session.


Moreover, some people overlook environmental factors affecting foundation stability and crack development. Factors such as temperature fluctuations, soil moisture levels, and nearby construction activities can influence foundation behavior significantly. Ignoring these elements might result in misinterpreting data collected from crack measurements.


Finally, neglecting professional consultation when needed is another critical mistake. While simple monitoring techniques serve well for initial assessments and ongoing observation, consulting with a structural engineer or foundation specialist is imperative if you notice significant growth in cracks or other signs of structural distress like uneven floors or doors that jam frequently.


In conclusion, while monitoring foundation cracks with simple measuring tools offers a hands-on method for homeowners to keep track of potential issues, avoiding common mistakes is key to ensuring accurate assessment and timely intervention where necessary. Establishing baselines, maintaining consistent monitoring practices, using tools correctly, considering environmental influences, and seeking professional advice when necessary will help manage this important aspect of home maintenance effectively.

Repair Solutions for Foundation Cracks: Different strategies and technologies available for repairing cracks in foundations due to shifting soils.

In the world of monitoring spreading lines, particularly in fields such as agriculture, construction, and environmental science, the use of simple measuring tools is often the first line of defense against errors that could lead to significant consequences. While these tools provide a practical and cost-effective means for early detection of irregularities or changes in spreading patterns, there comes a point when professional assessment becomes indispensable. Understanding when to transition from relying solely on basic tools to seeking expert evaluation can make all the difference in ensuring accuracy and preventing potential mishaps.


Simple measuring tools like tape measures, calipers, or even basic GPS devices offer a straightforward approach to tracking and monitoring spreading lines. These instruments are user-friendly, require minimal training, and allow for quick assessments in real-time scenarios. For many routine tasks or preliminary evaluations, they serve their purpose well by providing immediate data that can inform decision-making processes.


However, these tools also have limitations that must be recognized. Their precision might not always meet the stringent requirements necessary for certain projects or conditions where even minor deviations could lead to major issues. For instance, in agricultural settings where precise application of fertilizers or pesticides is crucial to crop health and environmental safety, simple measurement inaccuracies could result in either overuse or underuse of materials with detrimental effects.


The need for professional assessment arises when these simple tools reveal inconsistencies that cannot be easily explained or corrected through basic adjustments. When measurements indicate potential problems-such as unexpected shifts in boundary lines or unusual growth patterns-this is often a signal that more sophisticated analysis is required. Professional assessors bring expertise and advanced technology to the table, offering insights that go beyond what simple measuring devices can provide.


Moreover, professionals are equipped with specialized knowledge about industry standards and regulatory requirements that may affect how spreading lines should be monitored and managed.

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They can conduct comprehensive evaluations using high-precision instruments such as laser levels, drones with mapping capabilities, or geospatial analysis software-tools that significantly enhance accuracy and reliability.


Thus, understanding when professional assessment is necessary involves recognizing the limits of simple measuring tools while appreciating the value brought by expert intervention. It requires an awareness of both the technical demands of the project at hand and any regulatory frameworks governing those practices. By making informed decisions about when to escalate from basic measurements to expert analysis, one ensures not only compliance but also efficiency and safety across various applications.


In conclusion, while simple measuring tools serve as essential components in monitoring spreading lines effectively on a day-to-day basis, there are moments when their utility reaches its threshold. At this juncture lies an opportunity: calling upon professional expertise not only bridges gaps left by rudimentary methods but also elevates overall project integrity-a balance between simplicity's convenience and sophistication's precision ensures optimal outcomes across diverse domains.

Preventative Measures: Tips for homeowners to minimize the risk of foundation damage from seasonal soil changes.

Monitoring spreading lines, particularly in industrial or environmental settings, is essential for maintaining safety and efficiency. Simple measuring tools can be surprisingly effective for this purpose when applied correctly. This essay explores several case studies that highlight successful outcomes achieved through the use of uncomplicated monitoring techniques.


One significant example comes from a rural agricultural setting where simple tension meters were employed to monitor the integrity of irrigation systems.

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The farmers faced frequent issues with their water distribution lines due to wear and tear over time. By using these basic tools, they could easily measure the tension in the lines and identify any segments at risk of failure. Regular monitoring allowed them to address potential problems before they escalated, ensuring consistent water supply to their crops and enhancing overall productivity.


In another instance, a construction company implemented basic plumb bobs and levels to monitor spreading lines during the erection of scaffolding structures. Safety was a paramount concern, as any misalignment could lead to accidents on site. The simplicity of these tools made them ideal for quick checks by workers without specialized training. As a result, the company experienced fewer incidents related to structural instability, demonstrating that even straightforward measuring devices can significantly contribute to workplace safety.


Environmental conservation projects also offer compelling case studies. In an effort to preserve wetlands, conservationists used simple string lines with marked intervals to track erosion along riverbanks. This low-cost technique enabled them to gather data over extended periods without requiring sophisticated equipment or large budgets. The information collected was crucial in developing strategies for bank stabilization and habitat restoration, leading to improved ecological outcomes.


These examples underscore the value of simple measuring tools in diverse applications ranging from agriculture and construction to environmental management. They demonstrate how uncomplicated methods can provide critical insights into spreading line dynamics, allowing for timely interventions that prevent larger issues from developing.


In conclusion, while advanced technology often garners attention in monitoring practices, these case studies illustrate that simplicity should not be underestimated. By making strategic use of straightforward tools like tension meters, plumb bobs, levels, and string lines, organizations across various sectors have successfully monitored spreading lines and achieved positive repair outcomes. These successes emphasize the importance of choosing appropriate solutions tailored to specific needs rather than defaulting solely to complex systems or equipment.

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An actively eroding rill on an intensively-farmed field in eastern Germany. This phenomenon is aggravated by poor agricultural practices because when ploughing, the furrows were traced in the direction of the slope rather than that of the terrain contour lines.

Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is distinct from weathering which involves no movement.[1][2] Removal of rock or soil as clastic sediment is referred to as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by dissolution.[3] Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres.

Agents of erosion include rainfall;[4] bedrock wear in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea and waves; glacial plucking, abrasion, and scour; areal flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes; and mass movement processes in steep landscapes like landslides and debris flows. The rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Typically, physical erosion proceeds the fastest on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may also be sensitive to some climatically controlled properties including amounts of water supplied (e.g., by rain), storminess, wind speed, wave fetch, or atmospheric temperature (especially for some ice-related processes). Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material that is already carried by, for example, a river or glacier.[5][6] The transport of eroded materials from their original location is followed by deposition, which is arrival and emplacement of material at a new location.[1]

While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10–40 times the rate at which soil erosion is occurring globally.[7] At agriculture sites in the Appalachian Mountains, intensive farming practices have caused erosion at up to 100 times the natural rate of erosion in the region.[8] Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on-site" and "off-site" problems. On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, this leads to desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems worldwide.[9]: 2 [10]: 1 [11]

Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion.[12] However, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils.

A natural arch produced by the wind erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz, Jordan
A wave-like sea cliff produced by coastal erosion, in Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China

Physical processes

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Rainfall and surface runoff

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Soil and water being splashed by the impact of a single raindrop

Rainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four main types of soil erosion: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion. Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by sheet erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion (the most severe of the four).[10]: 60–61 [13]

In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil,[14] ejecting soil particles.[4] The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m (2.0 ft) vertically and 1.5 m (4.9 ft) horizontally on level ground.

If the soil is saturated, or if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil, surface runoff occurs. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil particles (sediment) down the slope.[15] Sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow.[15]

A spoil tip covered in rills and gullies due to erosion processes caused by rainfall: Rummu, Estonia

Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes. Generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically of the order of a few centimetres (about an inch) or less and along-channel slopes may be quite steep. This means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers.[16]

Gully erosion occurs when runoff water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a considerable depth.[17][18][19] A gully is distinguished from a rill based on a critical cross-sectional area of at least one square foot, i.e. the size of a channel that can no longer be erased via normal tillage operations.[20]

Extreme gully erosion can progress to formation of badlands. These form under conditions of high relief on easily eroded bedrock in climates favorable to erosion. Conditions or disturbances that limit the growth of protective vegetation (rhexistasy) are a key element of badland formation.[21]

Rivers and streams

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Dobbingstone Burn, Scotland, showing two different types of erosion affecting the same place. Valley erosion is occurring due to the flow of the stream, and the boulders and stones (and much of the soil) that are lying on the stream's banks are glacial till that was left behind as ice age glaciers flowed over the terrain.
Layers of chalk exposed by a river eroding through them
Green land erosion
Green land erosion

Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley into the hillside, creating head cuts and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V-shaped cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some base level is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream meanders across the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood when more and faster-moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles, pebbles, and boulders can also act erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known as traction.[22]

Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. This is distinguished from changes on the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to as scour. Erosion and changes in the form of river banks may be measured by inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position of the bank surface along the rods at different times.[23]

Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water.[24] It can occur both along rivers and at the coast. Rapid river channel migration observed in the Lena River of Siberia is due to thermal erosion, as these portions of the banks are composed of permafrost-cemented non-cohesive materials.[25] Much of this erosion occurs as the weakened banks fail in large slumps. Thermal erosion also affects the Arctic coast, where wave action and near-shore temperatures combine to undercut permafrost bluffs along the shoreline and cause them to fail. Annual erosion rates along a 100-kilometre (62-mile) segment of the Beaufort Sea shoreline averaged 5.6 metres (18 feet) per year from 1955 to 2002.[26]

Most river erosion happens nearer to the mouth of a river. On a river bend, the longest least sharp side has slower moving water. Here deposits build up. On the narrowest sharpest side of the bend, there is faster moving water so this side tends to erode away mostly.

Rapid erosion by a large river can remove enough sediments to produce a river anticline,[27] as isostatic rebound raises rock beds unburdened by erosion of overlying beds.

Coastal erosion

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Wave cut platform caused by erosion of cliffs by the sea, at Southerndown in South Wales
Erosion of the boulder clay (of Pleistocene age) along cliffs of Filey Bay, Yorkshire, England

Shoreline erosion, which occurs on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and waves but sea level (tidal) change can also play a role.

Sea-dune erosion at Talacre beach, Wales

Hydraulic action takes place when the air in a joint is suddenly compressed by a wave closing the entrance of the joint. This then cracks it. Wave pounding is when the sheer energy of the wave hitting the cliff or rock breaks pieces off. Abrasion or corrasion is caused by waves launching sea load at the cliff. It is the most effective and rapid form of shoreline erosion (not to be confused with corrosion). Corrosion is the dissolving of rock by carbonic acid in sea water.[28] Limestone cliffs are particularly vulnerable to this kind of erosion. Attrition is where particles/sea load carried by the waves are worn down as they hit each other and the cliffs. This then makes the material easier to wash away. The material ends up as shingle and sand. Another significant source of erosion, particularly on carbonate coastlines, is boring, scraping and grinding of organisms, a process termed bioerosion.[29]

Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift). When the upcurrent supply of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition. These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a spit). Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.[30]

Erosion of a coastal surface, followed by a fall in sea level, can produce a distinctive landform called a raised beach.[31]

Chemical erosion

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Chemical erosion is the loss of matter in a landscape in the form of solutes. Chemical erosion is usually calculated from the solutes found in streams. Anders Rapp pioneered the study of chemical erosion in his work about Kärkevagge published in 1960.[32]

Formation of sinkholes and other features of karst topography is an example of extreme chemical erosion.[33]

Glaciers

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The Devil's Nest (Pirunpesä), the deepest ground erosion in Europe,[34] located in Jalasjärvi, Kurikka, Finland
Glacial moraines above Lake Louise, in Alberta, Canada

Glaciers erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasion/scouring, plucking, and ice thrusting. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood. Scientists have shown that, in addition to the role of temperature played in valley-deepening, other glaciological processes, such as erosion also control cross-valley variations. In a homogeneous bedrock erosion pattern, curved channel cross-section beneath the ice is created. Though the glacier continues to incise vertically, the shape of the channel beneath the ice eventually remain constant, reaching a U-shaped parabolic steady-state shape as we now see in glaciated valleys. Scientists also provide a numerical estimate of the time required for the ultimate formation of a steady-shaped U-shaped valley—approximately 100,000 years. In a weak bedrock (containing material more erodible than the surrounding rocks) erosion pattern, on the contrary, the amount of over deepening is limited because ice velocities and erosion rates are reduced.[35]

Glaciers can also cause pieces of bedrock to crack off in the process of plucking. In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. This method produced some of the many thousands of lake basins that dot the edge of the Canadian Shield. Differences in the height of mountain ranges are not only being the result tectonic forces, such as rock uplift, but also local climate variations. Scientists use global analysis of topography to show that glacial erosion controls the maximum height of mountains, as the relief between mountain peaks and the snow line are generally confined to altitudes less than 1500 m.[36] The erosion caused by glaciers worldwide erodes mountains so effectively that the term glacial buzzsaw has become widely used, which describes the limiting effect of glaciers on the height of mountain ranges.[37] As mountains grow higher, they generally allow for more glacial activity (especially in the accumulation zone above the glacial equilibrium line altitude),[38] which causes increased rates of erosion of the mountain, decreasing mass faster than isostatic rebound can add to the mountain.[39] This provides a good example of a negative feedback loop. Ongoing research is showing that while glaciers tend to decrease mountain size, in some areas, glaciers can actually reduce the rate of erosion, acting as a glacial armor.[37] Ice can not only erode mountains but also protect them from erosion. Depending on glacier regime, even steep alpine lands can be preserved through time with the help of ice. Scientists have proved this theory by sampling eight summits of northwestern Svalbard using Be10 and Al26, showing that northwestern Svalbard transformed from a glacier-erosion state under relatively mild glacial maxima temperature, to a glacier-armor state occupied by cold-based, protective ice during much colder glacial maxima temperatures as the Quaternary ice age progressed.[40]

These processes, combined with erosion and transport by the water network beneath the glacier, leave behind glacial landforms such as moraines, drumlins, ground moraine (till), glaciokarst, kames, kame deltas, moulins, and glacial erratics in their wake, typically at the terminus or during glacier retreat.[41]

The best-developed glacial valley morphology appears to be restricted to landscapes with low rock uplift rates (less than or equal to 2mm per year) and high relief, leading to long-turnover times. Where rock uplift rates exceed 2mm per year, glacial valley morphology has generally been significantly modified in postglacial time. Interplay of glacial erosion and tectonic forcing governs the morphologic impact of glaciations on active orogens, by both influencing their height, and by altering the patterns of erosion during subsequent glacial periods via a link between rock uplift and valley cross-sectional shape.[42]

Floods

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The mouth of the River Seaton in Cornwall after heavy rainfall caused flooding in the area and cause a significant amount of the beach to erode
The mouth of the River Seaton in Cornwall after heavy rainfall caused flooding in the area and cause a significant amount of the beach to erode; leaving behind a tall sand bank in its place

At extremely high flows, kolks, or vortices are formed by large volumes of rapidly rushing water. Kolks cause extreme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole-type geographical features called rock-cut basins. Examples can be seen in the flood regions result from glacial Lake Missoula, which created the channeled scablands in the Columbia Basin region of eastern Washington.[43]

Wind erosion

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Árbol de Piedra, a rock formation in the Altiplano, Bolivia sculpted by wind erosion

Wind erosion is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. It is also a major source of land degradation, evaporation, desertification, harmful airborne dust, and crop damage—especially after being increased far above natural rates by human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture.[44][45]

Wind erosion is of two primary varieties: deflation, where the wind picks up and carries away loose particles; and abrasion, where surfaces are worn down as they are struck by airborne particles carried by wind. Deflation is divided into three categories: (1) surface creep, where larger, heavier particles slide or roll along the ground; (2) saltation, where particles are lifted a short height into the air, and bounce and saltate across the surface of the soil; and (3) suspension, where very small and light particles are lifted into the air by the wind, and are often carried for long distances. Saltation is responsible for the majority (50–70%) of wind erosion, followed by suspension (30–40%), and then surface creep (5–25%).[46]: 57 [47]

Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.[48]

Mass wasting

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A wadi in Makhtesh Ramon, Israel, showing gravity collapse erosion on its banks

Mass wasting or mass movement is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a sloped surface, mainly due to the force of gravity.[49][50]

Mass wasting is an important part of the erosional process and is often the first stage in the breakdown and transport of weathered materials in mountainous areas.[51]: 93  It moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where other eroding agents such as streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations. Mass-wasting processes are always occurring continuously on all slopes; some mass-wasting processes act very slowly; others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any perceptible down-slope movement of rock or sediment is often referred to in general terms as a landslide. However, landslides can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs. One of the visible topographical manifestations of a very slow form of such activity is a scree slope.[citation needed]

Slumping happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials like clay that, once released, may move quite rapidly downhill. They will often show a spoon-shaped isostatic depression, in which the material has begun to slide downhill. In some cases, the slump is caused by water beneath the slope weakening it. In many cases it is simply the result of poor engineering along highways where it is a regular occurrence.[52]

Surface creep is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not perceptible except through extended observation. However, the term can also describe the rolling of dislodged soil particles 0.5 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in) in diameter by wind along the soil surface.[53]

Submarine sediment gravity flows

[edit]
Bathymetry of submarine canyons in the continental slope off the coast of New York and New Jersey

On the continental slope, erosion of the ocean floor to create channels and submarine canyons can result from the rapid downslope flow of sediment gravity flows, bodies of sediment-laden water that move rapidly downslope as turbidity currents. Where erosion by turbidity currents creates oversteepened slopes it can also trigger underwater landslides and debris flows. Turbidity currents can erode channels and canyons into substrates ranging from recently deposited unconsolidated sediments to hard crystalline bedrock.[54][55][56] Almost all continental slopes and deep ocean basins display such channels and canyons resulting from sediment gravity flows and submarine canyons act as conduits for the transfer of sediment from the continents and shallow marine environments to the deep sea.[57][58][59] Turbidites, which are the sedimentary deposits resulting from turbidity currents, comprise some of the thickest and largest sedimentary sequences on Earth, indicating that the associated erosional processes must also have played a prominent role in Earth's history.

Factors affecting erosion rates

[edit]

Climate

[edit]

The amount and intensity of precipitation is the main climatic factor governing soil erosion by water. The relationship is particularly strong if heavy rainfall occurs at times when, or in locations where, the soil's surface is not well protected by vegetation. This might be during periods when agricultural activities leave the soil bare, or in semi-arid regions where vegetation is naturally sparse. Wind erosion requires strong winds, particularly during times of drought when vegetation is sparse and soil is dry (and so is more erodible). Other climatic factors such as average temperature and temperature range may also affect erosion, via their effects on vegetation and soil properties. In general, given similar vegetation and ecosystems, areas with more precipitation (especially high-intensity rainfall), more wind, or more storms are expected to have more erosion.

In some areas of the world (e.g. the mid-western US), rainfall intensity is the primary determinant of erosivity (for a definition of erosivity check,[60]) with higher intensity rainfall generally resulting in more soil erosion by water. The size and velocity of rain drops is also an important factor. Larger and higher-velocity rain drops have greater kinetic energy, and thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than smaller, slower-moving rain drops.[61]

In other regions of the world (e.g. western Europe), runoff and erosion result from relatively low intensities of stratiform rainfall falling onto the previously saturated soil. In such situations, rainfall amount rather than intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion by water.[17] According to the climate change projections, erosivity will increase significantly in Europe and soil erosion may increase by 13–22.5% by 2050 [62]

In Taiwan, where typhoon frequency increased significantly in the 21st century, a strong link has been drawn between the increase in storm frequency with an increase in sediment load in rivers and reservoirs, highlighting the impacts climate change can have on erosion.[63]

Vegetative cover

[edit]

Vegetation acts as an interface between the atmosphere and the soil. It increases the permeability of the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing runoff. It shelters the soil from winds, which results in decreased wind erosion, as well as advantageous changes in microclimate. The roots of the plants bind the soil together, and interweave with other roots, forming a more solid mass that is less susceptible to both water[64] and wind erosion. The removal of vegetation increases the rate of surface erosion.[65]

Topography

[edit]

The topography of the land determines the velocity at which surface runoff will flow, which in turn determines the erosivity of the runoff. Longer, steeper slopes (especially those without adequate vegetative cover) are more susceptible to very high rates of erosion during heavy rains than shorter, less steep slopes. Steeper terrain is also more prone to mudslides, landslides, and other forms of gravitational erosion processes.[61]: 28–30 [66][67]

Tectonics

[edit]

Tectonic processes control rates and distributions of erosion at the Earth's surface. If the tectonic action causes part of the Earth's surface (e.g., a mountain range) to be raised or lowered relative to surrounding areas, this must necessarily change the gradient of the land surface. Because erosion rates are almost always sensitive to the local slope (see above), this will change the rates of erosion in the uplifted area. Active tectonics also brings fresh, unweathered rock towards the surface, where it is exposed to the action of erosion.

However, erosion can also affect tectonic processes. The removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on the lower crust and mantle. Because tectonic processes are driven by gradients in the stress field developed in the crust, this unloading can in turn cause tectonic or isostatic uplift in the region.[51]: 99 [68] In some cases, it has been hypothesised that these twin feedbacks can act to localize and enhance zones of very rapid exhumation of deep crustal rocks beneath places on the Earth's surface with extremely high erosion rates, for example, beneath the extremely steep terrain of Nanga Parbat in the western Himalayas. Such a place has been called a "tectonic aneurysm".[69]

Development

[edit]

Human land development, in forms including agricultural and urban development, is considered a significant factor in erosion and sediment transport, which aggravate food insecurity.[70] In Taiwan, increases in sediment load in the northern, central, and southern regions of the island can be tracked with the timeline of development for each region throughout the 20th century.[63] The intentional removal of soil and rock by humans is a form of erosion that has been named lisasion.[71]

Erosion at various scales

[edit]

Mountain ranges

[edit]

Mountain ranges take millions of years to erode to the degree they effectively cease to exist. Scholars Pitman and Golovchenko estimate that it takes probably more than 450 million years to erode a mountain mass similar to the Himalaya into an almost-flat peneplain if there are no significant sea-level changes.[72] Erosion of mountains massifs can create a pattern of equally high summits called summit accordance.[73] It has been argued that extension during post-orogenic collapse is a more effective mechanism of lowering the height of orogenic mountains than erosion.[74]

Examples of heavily eroded mountain ranges include the Timanides of Northern Russia. Erosion of this orogen has produced sediments that are now found in the East European Platform, including the Cambrian Sablya Formation near Lake Ladoga. Studies of these sediments indicate that it is likely that the erosion of the orogen began in the Cambrian and then intensified in the Ordovician.[75]

Soils

[edit]

If the erosion rate exceeds soil formation, erosion destroys the soil.[76] Lower rates of erosion can prevent the formation of soil features that take time to develop. Inceptisols develop on eroded landscapes that, if stable, would have supported the formation of more developed Alfisols.[77]

While erosion of soils is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion occurs globally. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on-site" and "off-site" problems. On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the eventual result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems.[10][78]

Often in the United States, farmers cultivating highly erodible land must comply with a conservation plan to be eligible for agricultural assistance.[79]

Consequences of human-made soil erosion

[edit]

See also

[edit]
  • Bridge scour – Erosion of sediment near bridge foundations by water
  • Cellular confinement – Confinement system used in construction and geotechnical engineering
  • Colluvium – Loose, unconsolidated sediments deposited at the base of a hillslope
  • Groundwater sapping
  • Lessivage
  • Space weathering – Type of weathering
  • Vetiver System – System of soil and water conservation

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  74. ^ Dewey, J.F.; Ryan, P.D.; Andersen, T.B. (1993). "Orogenic uplift and collapse, crustal thickness, fabrics and metamorphic phase changes: the role of eclogites". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 76 (1): 325–343. Bibcode:1993GSLSP..76..325D. doi:10.1144/gsl.sp.1993.076.01.16. S2CID 55985869.
  75. ^ Orlov, S.Yu.; Kuznetsov, N.B.; Miller, E.D.; Soboleva, A.A.; Udoratina, O.V. (2011). "Age Constraints for the Pre-Uralide–Timanide Orogenic Event Inferred from the Study of Detrital Zircons". Doklady Earth Sciences. 440 (1): 1216–1221. Bibcode:2011DokES.440.1216O. doi:10.1134/s1028334x11090078. S2CID 128973374. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  76. ^ Lupia-Palmieri, Elvidio (2004). "Erosion". In Goudie, A.S. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. p. 336.
  77. ^ Alexander, Earl B. (2014). Soils in natural landscapes. CRC Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-4665-9436-4.
  78. ^ Blanco, Humberto; Lal, Rattan (2010). "Soil and water conservation". Principles of Soil Conservation and Management. Springer. p. 2. ISBN 978-90-481-8529-0.
  79. ^ "Farm and Commodity Policy: Glossary". United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Boardman, John; Poesen, Jean, eds. (2007). Soil Erosion in Europe. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-85911-7.
  • Montgomery, David (2008). Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations (1st ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25806-8.
  • Montgomery, D.R. (8 August 2007). "Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (33): 13268–13272. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10413268M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0611508104. PMC 1948917. PMID 17686990.
  • Vanoni, Vito A., ed. (1975). "The nature of sedimentation problems". Sedimentation Engineering. ASCE Publications. ISBN 978-0-7844-0823-0.
  • Mainguet, Monique; Dumay, Frédéric (April 2011). Fighting wind erosion. One aspect of the combat against desertification. Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD. CSFD/Agropolis International. Archived from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2015.
[edit]
  • The Soil Erosion Site
  • International Erosion Control Association
  • Soil Erosion Data in the European Soil Portal
  • USDA National Soil Erosion Laboratory
  • The Soil and Water Conservation Society

 

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Driving Directions in Cook County


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Reviews for United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc


United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Jim de Leon

(5)

It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well. I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths). You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company. The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door). I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!

United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Sarah McNeily

(5)

USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.

United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Chris Abplanalp

(5)

USS did an amazing job on my underpinning on my house, they were also very courteous to the proximity of my property line next to my neighbor. They kept things in order with all the dirt/mud they had to excavate. They were done exactly in the timeframe they indicated, and the contract was very details oriented with drawings of what would be done. Only thing that would have been nice, is they left my concrete a little muddy with boot prints but again, all-in-all a great job

United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Dave Kari

(5)

What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.

United Structural Systems of Illinois, Inc

Paul Gunderlock

(4)

The staff was helpful, very nice and easy to work with and completed the work timely and cleaned up well. Communications faltered a bit at times and there was an email communications glitch which was no fault of anyone, but no big deal and all ended up fine. We sure feel better to have this done and hope that is the end of our structural issues. It does seem like (after talking to several related companies), that it would be great if some of these related companies had a structural engineer on staff vs using on the job expertise gained over years - which is definitely valuable! But leaves a bit of uncertainty - and probably saves money for both sides may be the trade-off? So far, so good though! Thank you.

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Frequently Asked Questions

The most basic tools for monitoring crack movement include a ruler or tape measure, a pencil for marking reference points, and a crack gauge. These tools allow you to measure changes in the width or length of cracks over time.
Its recommended to check and record the measurements of foundation cracks at least once a month. Consistent monitoring helps identify any significant changes that may indicate ongoing structural issues requiring attention.
Focus on measuring both the width and length of each crack accurately. Mark fixed points at each end of the crack to ensure consistency in your measurements over time. Record these measurements carefully for future comparison.
Significant movement is usually indicated by noticeable widening, lengthening, or new branching of cracks. If you observe consistent growth beyond 1/8 inch (3 mm) within a short period (e.g., several months), it may be necessary to consult a structural engineer or foundation repair specialist for further assessment.